Individual differences and informal learning in the workplace

Examining the factors linking the intention of female entrepreneurial mindset: A study in Pakistan's small and medium-sized enterprises

In contemporary times, women have gained recognition as accomplished entrepreneurs who make substantial contributions to economic development by virtue of their perseverance, excellence, and expertise. The concept of women's entrepreneurship encompasses the undertaking of creating novel enterprises, with the individual's intention to assume the role of an entrepreneur serving as a pivotal factor in this developmental trajectory. The underperformance of female entrepreneurs is alarming for developing nations. Purposefully, exploring the factors correlating female entrepreneurship intention is highly regarded, and a timely research is needed, thus this study explores the context of Pakistan considered a developing country. Hence, we collected data from listed small and medium enterprises (SMEs) operating in the country by means of structured questionnaires. Using SPSS and Smart-PLS software, we developed a conceptual model and performed analysis. The Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) constitutes a robust psychological framework applicable to understanding and anticipating various human behaviors, first and foremost, entrepreneurial intention. When applying the TPB to the area of women's entrepreneurial intentions, several crucial factors come into play, including motivation, self-confidence, personality traits, and adaptability. The results indicate that factors such as the will to start a business, willingness, personality traits, adaptability, and background factors, including education and experience, impact entrepreneurial intention. Also, their professional careers make them able to launch a business. Based on our findings, we recommend that the Small and Medium Enterprise Development Authority (SMEDA), policymakers, and practitioners may provide various incentives and support systems related to these factors to encourage their own company launches. Prior research has examined various factors that impact the entrepreneurial mindsets of women. However, our study focuses specifically on closely associated aspects that have received limited attention, particularly in the context of Pakistan. This study makes a valuable contribution to the extant body of literature by providing empirical evidence in the aforementioned domains.

It's all metacognitive: The relationship between informal learning and self-regulated learning in the workplace

Informal workplace learning accounts for a large extent of employees' learning. Informal learning activities such as reflection or keeping up-to-date resemble self-regulated learning strategies that indicate the ability to plan, monitor, and regulate one's learning. However, little is known about the relationship between informal learning behaviors and self-regulated learning strategies. Structural equation modeling with data from 248 employees revealed that the informal learning behaviors of reflection, keeping up-to-date, feedback-seeking, and knowledge-sharing are strongly related to the metacognitive self-regulated learning strategies of monitoring and regulation. However, informal learning behaviors lack the deep-processing strategies of elaboration and organization, and the resource strategies of help-seeking and effort regulation. Only innovative behavior is strongly related to effort regulation. These results suggest a potential deficit in employees' strategy use. Employees should consider further resources to increase their learning effectiveness in the workplace. The results are discussed, and practical implications are outlined.

The Relationship of Artificial Intelligence Opportunity Perception and Employee Workplace Well-Being: A Moderated Mediation Model

Several previous studies have revealed a positive relationship between artificial intelligence (AI) technology development and employees' employment, income, and job performance. If individuals can seize the opportunity to master the knowledge and skills relevant to the implementation of AI, they could make career progress and improve their workplace well-being (WWB). Based on the transactional theory of stress and resource conservation theory, we constructed a moderated mediation model to explore the relationship between AI opportunity perception and employees' WWB and examine the mediating factor of informal learning in the workplace (ILW), as well as the moderating factor of unemployment risk perception (URP). Through a survey of 268 employees, our results showed the following: (1) AI opportunity perception was significantly positively correlated with employees' WWB; (2) ILW played a mediating role in the positive relationship between AI opportunity perception and employees' WWB; and (3) URP negatively moderated the mediating relationship of ILW between AI opportunity perception and employees' WWB. Our research results have a guiding significance for enterprises seeking to promote WWB during AI application.

How Personality, Emotions and Situational Characteristics Affect Learning from Social Interactions in the Workplace

The present study examines the effects of social interactions' situational characteristics, emotions, and personality on self-perceived learning from social interactions at work based on diary and survey data. The sample comprises 43 German vocational education and training (VET) trainees in various apprenticeship programs. During the diary period of ten working days, the participants were instructed to record five typical social interactions at work every day. Quantitative data of 1,328 social interactions were analyzed by means of multilevel analysis. Regarding social interactions' characteristics, the analysis revealed the baseline level of instrumentality, an interruption of the social interaction, its instrumentality and questions asked by the trainee during the interaction as positive predictors of self-perceived learning. A trainee's higher speech proportion, however, was a negative predictor. Regarding state emotions, the emotional experiences of bored and motivated were identified as significant positive predictors of learning from social interactions at work. Emotions' baseline level as well as personality traits had no significant influence. The results indicate that social interactions' situational characteristics have the biggest influence on self-perceived learning from social interactions.

Commute based learning: Integrating literature across transportation, education, and i-o psychology

Though commuting is often seen as a source of stress, commuters may take advantage of travel time to pursue learning and developmental goals—a concept we refer to as Commute-Based Learning (CBL). We draw on self-regulation and learning and development theories to define CBL in terms of its context, content, and process and present the findings of a systematic review of multitasking activities in the transportation literature. This review demonstrates that (a) travel-based activities related to learning are increasingly prevalent, (b) people enjoy being productive during their commutes, and (c) commute mode and environmental characteristics impact multitasking and evaluations of the commute itself. We then integrate these review findings with psychological theories to propose a framework specifying the predictors of CBL, its benefits, and drawbacks, and the commute mode's moderating influence. These efforts yield several practical implications and future research directions to increase CBL's potential benefits while reducing potential harm.

Plain Language Summary

Although commuting can often be a source of stress, commuters may also take advantage of travel time to pursue learning and developmental goals—a concept we refer to as Commute-Based Learning (CBL).To emphasize the potential benefits and pitfalls of CBL, we draw on learning and development, self-regulation, multiple-goal pursuit, and multiple resource theories to define CBL in terms of its context (where it occurs), content (what it includes), and process (how it is done). Next, we present the findings of a systematic review ofresearch on multitasking activities in the transportation literature to gather evidence of the learning activities that commuters may pursue.This review demonstrates that (a) travel-based activities related to learning are increasingly prevalent, (b) people enjoy being productive during their commutes, and (c)commute mode and environmental characteristics impact multitasking and evaluations of the commute itself. We then integrate these findings from the transportation literature with psychological theories to propose a framework specifying the predictors of CBL (individual and organizational), its benefits (expertise, need satisfaction and well-being) and drawbacks (depletion, reduced safety), and the critical role of commute mode as a moderator of these relationships. Our definition and framework of CBL inform practical implications for improving the benefits of learning during the commute, while mitigating its potential drawbacks. We also present suggested directions for future multidisciplinary research. We hope this review provides insight into the state of the literature on commute-based learning and a clear research agenda for advancement in this broadly important, yet underdeveloped area.

Assessing the Core Variables of Business Managers' Intuitive Decision Ability: A Review and Analysis

Business decisions are frequently based on informed intuition in contrast to a formal analysis. Early man used simple intuition, but through time knowledge increases allowed decision makers (DMs) to move to 'objectively informed intuition' (OII). This uses inherent and learnt cognition at both unconscious and conscious levels. A model of business OII is proposed and evaluated using as variables the managers' personal characteristics and their unique set of objectives. The resultant equation allows assessing decision quality and provides a framework for DMs to work on improvements relative to their objectives. The literature suggests OII stems from a DM's makeup (business related phenotype), training and experience in a dynamic trio leading to the defining equation. Analyses show business related phenotype is the most important determinant as well as confirming the proposed theory on the determinants of OII success. Practical methods of improving OII are reviewed, and issues worth further investigation outlined. This research is the first encompassing quantitative relationships explaining business OII quality thus enabling improving OII. Suggested further research may refine the equation and expand its core base. This work involves a range of disciplines as different aspects of human characteristics impact on how decisions are made.

The effect of subjective age on loneliness in the old adults: The chain mediating role of resilience and self-esteem

Objectives

This study aimed to explore the effect of subjective age on loneliness in old adults, and the mediating role of resilience and self-esteem in subjective age and loneliness.

Methods

Approximately 450 old adults from Jiangxi, Hunan, Henan provinces completed the third edition of the Loneliness Scale (UCLA-LS III), Age Decade Scale (ADS), Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC), and Self-Esteem Scale (SES).

Results

(1) Subjective age was significantly positively correlated with loneliness. (2) Resilience, self-esteem, and loneliness were significantly negatively correlated. (3) Subjective age affected loneliness through the mediating effects of resilience and self-esteem, respectively. (4) Resilience and self-esteem played a chain mediating role between subjective age and loneliness.

Conclusion

Resilience and self-esteem can directly affect the loneliness of the old adults alone and can also affect the loneliness of the old adults through the chain mediating effect of resilience and self-esteem.

Learning leadership and feedback seeking behavior: Leadership that spurs feedback seeking

Lifelong learning is crucial for professionals to continuously develop and update their knowledge and skills, and for organizations to create and sustain competitive advantage. In this regard, feedback seeking is a powerful vehicle to gain new knowledge and insights in one's development and performance. The current research dives deeper in the concept of feedback seeking by investigating the act and use of feedback as well as multiple feedback seeking methods. Leadership as a contextual factor can affect employees' feedback seeking behavior. As such, this study also explores the role of learning leadership for feedback seeking. Learning leadership supports, facilitates and encourages employees' professional development. To address these aims, two independent studies were conducted. Study 1 was a quantitative, survey study that investigated the direct relationship between learning leadership and (the act and use of) feedback seeking. Study 2 was a qualitative, interview study that explored which concrete learning leadership behaviors were linked to different methods of feedback seeking. The findings confirmed the pivotal role of leaders in employees' feedback seeking behavior and provided an overview of concrete learning leadership behaviors.

How job complexity fosters employee creativity: a contextualized growth perspective and the mechanism of feedback-seeking

Purpose

Drawing on the work design growth model (WDGM), this paper aims to explore the relationship between job complexity and employee creativity through feedback-seeking and the moderating effect of team leaders with a growth creative mindset.

Design/methodology/approach

The authors used an online survey to test the hypotheses. Data was collected in three waves from 74 supervisors and 349 paired employees in China.

Findings

Job complexity had a positive association with employees’ feedback-seeking, which further linked to employee creativity. This indirect effect was stronger in work teams with leaders endorsing a growth creative mindset.

Practical implications

Job complexity has become prevalent in organizations today. Taking daily complexity as a resource for nurturing employee creativity may balance organizations’ costs on formal training and give them more initiatives in long-term development. In addition, as the growth creative mindset is relatively easy to assess and change, it may bring insights in terms of creativity development.

Originality/value

By empirically testing the behavioural mechanism of WDGM, the learning and development perspective of work design offers a new explanation of the relationship between job complexity and employee creativity. The authors further extend WDGM by identifying leaders’ growth creative mindset to be a boundary condition.

How to Foster Informal Learning

Abstract. This article explains how three different informal learning strategies are influenceable by feedback and if and how feedback further mediates the impact of the cultural value of power distance on informal learning. We also examined the three informal learning strategies regarding their stableness and separability. A survey at two different timepoints was administered to technical staff members from a globally acting company from the automotive industry within six different countries ( N = 777). We tested our hypotheses by conducting a multigroup factor analysis based on a bootstrap-based structural equation model. Results showed informal learning strategies to be stable over time and cultures. Additionally, feedback availability showed to be a predictor of informal learning. The effect of power distance on informal learning is also mediated by feedback availability. The overall results show that informal learning strategies can be influenced differently in various countries.

Problem-Solving and Tool Use in Office Work: The Potential of Electronic Performance Support Systems to Promote Employee Performance and Learning

In the context of office work, learning to handle an Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) system is important as implementation costs for such systems and associated expectations are high. However, these expectations are often not met because the users are not trained adequately. Electronic Performance Support Systems (EPSS) are designed to support employees’ ERP-related problem-solving and informal learning. EPSS are supposed to enhance employees’ performance and informal workplace learning through task-specific and granular help in task performance and problem-solving. However, there is little empirical research on EPSS. Two survey studies addressed this research gap. In the first study, 301 people working in Human Resource (HR)-related positions and functions evaluated the learning potential of EPSS as well as potential advantages and obstacles concerning the implementation and use of EPSS. Though other measures are currently assessed as more important for learning, HR employees expect a strong increase in the significance of EPSS for employee learning. In the second study, 652 users of ERP software completed a questionnaire on characteristics of their daily work tasks, team characteristics, individual dispositions, their coping with ERP-related problems, and characteristics of EPSS. Findings indicate that the most frequently available and used approach when dealing with an ERP-related problem is consulting colleagues. Three EPSS types can be distinguished by their increasing integration into the user interface and their context-sensitivity (external, extrinsic, and intrinsic EPSS). While external and extrinsic EPSS are available to many users, intrinsic EPSS are less common but are used intensively if available. EPSS availability is identified to be a strong positive predictor of frequency of EPSS use, while agreeableness as well as the task complexity and information-processing requirements show small negative effects. Moreover, more intensive ERP users use EPSS more frequently. In general, ERP users value, features such as context-sensitivity, an integration of the EPSS into the ERP system’s user interface, the option to save one’s own notes, and information displayed in an extra window. It is expected that EPSS will play an important role in workplace learning in the future, along with other measures.

Influence of Core Self-Evaluations on Work Engagement: The Mediating Role of Informal Field-Based Learning and the Moderating Role of Work Design

This study aims to examine the effect of employees’ CSE on their work engagement, along with its underlying mechanisms and boundary conditions. Based on the job demands–resources (JD-R) model and conservation of resources (COR) theory, we propose and test a moderated mediation model that examines IFBL as the mediator and work design as the moderator in the relationship between CSE and work engagement. We use time-lagged data from 231 employees to analyze the data. The results indicate that: (1) CSE is positively related to work engagement of employees; (2) IFBL mediates the relationship between CSE and work engagement; (3) problem solving reinforces the effect of IFBL on work engagement, which consequently enhances the mediated relationship between CSE and work engagement via IFBL. We further discuss the limitations and future research directions of this study.

Informal (Field-Based) Learning

Most learning in the workplace occurs outside of formal learning environments—it happens informally, “in the field.” In this review, we share what is known about how such informal field-based learning (IFBL) works, offer guidance on how to promote healthy IFBL, and identify future research needs. We first situate IFBL within the broader stream of the learning literature. On the basis of the literature and organizational needs, we propose a CAM-OS framework that emphasizes five personal and situational readiness factors for enabling constructive IFBL: Capability, Awareness, Motivation, Opportunity, and Support. We use the framework to offer practical, evidence-based advice for each of three stakeholder groups—senior leaders, managers, and employees—and conclude with suggested avenues for future research. The review is grounded in the research literature with an emphasis on implications for practice.

Learning to Be Employable or Being Employable to Learn: The Reciprocal Relation Between Perceived Employability and Work-Related Learning

Learning to become employable is a catch phrase often used to highlight the importance of upskilling in today’s knowledge-based labor market. Yet, evidence on the relationship between work-related learning and employability is limited and does not account for potential reciprocity. This is important though: if employability also promotes work-related learning, labor market segmentation could be enhanced. Accordingly, this study investigates the reciprocal relationship between (formal and informal) work-related learning and perceived (internal and external) employability. Hypotheses are based on the attribution-based theory of intrapersonal motivation, which has not yet figured in employability research. Structural equation modeling was performed on three-wave survey data of Belgian employees. The pattern of results showed a reciprocal, albeit weak, relationship between formal work-related learning and perceived internal employability. No other significant relationships were established. Hence, the relationship between work-related learning and perceived employability might not be as straightforward as generally assumed.

The mediating role of social informal learning in the relationship between learning climate and employability

Purpose

This study examines whether learning climate relates to employability competences through social informal learning (i.e. feedback, help and information seeking).

Design/methodology/approach

Multiple regression analyses and structural equation modeling were used to test direct and indirect effects in a sample of 372 employees working in two Dutch governmental institutes.

Findings

The analyses confirmed that learning climate has an indirect effect on employability competences through feedback, help and information seeking. More specifically, the findings suggest that learning climate is important for employees' engagement in proactive social informal learning activities. Engaging in these learning activities, in turn, relates to a higher level of employability.

Originality/value

This study employs an integrative approach to understanding employability by including the organization's learning climate and employees' social informal learning behavior. It contributes to the extant literature on professional development by unraveling how proactive social informal learning relates to employability competences. It also provides new insights on learning climate as a determinant for social informal learning and employability.

Effect of good meeting practices and interactional justice on online workplace informal learning in Korea

The purpose of this study is to investigate the contextual factors that facilitate informal workplace learning during the meeting process or after the meeting in the online context. This research utilized structural equation modeling technique and the target sample of this study was fulltime workers employed at various levels within a wide range of organizations. The results show that good meeting practice has a positive impact on external scanning among the three types of informal learning. Specifically, good meeting practice is not significantly related to learning with others and self-experimentation but is positively associated with external scanning. Interactional justice, which is comprised of interactional and informational justice, has a significant effect on learning with others and the self-experimentation learning type Neither interactional nor informational justice is significantly related to external scanning. Furthermore, the moderating effects of the relationship among good meeting practices, interactional justice and informal learning are based on demographic profiles, especially gender. The findings are distinctively different in terms of several hypotheses depending on gender.

Lifelong learning and nurses' continuing professional development, a metasynthesis of the literature

Background

Continuing professional development (CPD) is central to nurses’ lifelong learning and constitutes a vital aspect for keeping nurses’ knowledge and skills up-to-date. While we know about the need for nurses’ continuing professional development, less is known about how nurses experience and perceive continuing professional development. A metasynthesis of how nurses experience and view continuing professional development may provide a basis for planning future continuing professional development interventions more effectively and take advantage of examples from different contexts. The aim of this paper is to conduct such a metasynthesis, investigating the qualitative research on nurses’ experiences of continuing professional development.

Methods

A metasynthesis of the qualitative literature was conducted. A total of 25 articles fulfilled the inclusion criteria and were reviewed.

Results

We determined five overarching themes, Organisational culture shapes the conditions, Supportive environment as a prerequisite, Attitudes and motivation reflect nurse’s professional values, Nurses’ perceptions of barriers and Perceived impact on practice as a core value. This metasynthesis highlights that nurses value continuing professional development and believe that it is fundamental to professionalism and lifelong learning. Moreover CPD is identified as important in improving patient care standards.

Conclusions

Based on the metasynthesis, we argue that access to continuing professional development could be made more attainable, realistic and relevant. Expediently, organizations should adequately fund and make continuing professional development accessible. In turn, nurses should continue to actively engage in continuing professional development to maintain high standards of nursing care through competent practice. This paper highlights the perceived benefits and challenges of continuing professional development that nurses face and offers advice and understanding in relation to continuing professional development. We believe that this metasynthesis contributes with insights and suggestions that would be valuable for nurses and policy makers and others who are involved in nurse education and continuing professional development.

How supply chain professionals learn at work: an investigation of learning mechanisms

Purpose

Supply chain (SC) professionals and their competence play a key role in creating value and competitive advantage for companies. A considerable amount of this competence is developed at work, but little is known about how this takes place. Drawing on constructivist learning theory, the authors investigate how SC professionals develop their competence at work.

Design/methodology/approach

The study takes off from a theoretical framework of workplace learning mechanisms, followed by a series of in-depth interviews with an expertise panel of profoundly competent and experienced SC professionals.

Findings

The results provide detailed insights into the learning process of SC professionals. The key findings show that SC professionals use a wide range of learning mechanisms throughout their careers, and that the contribution and complexity of these mechanisms differ and change dynamically with seniority. The findings also show that learning mechanisms should not be viewed as isolated phenomena, but closely related to every-day SCM work as well as learning attitude.

Research limitations/implications

By conceptualizing learning as a process, and congregating the fragmented literature into a framework of workplace learning mechanisms, this research provides a theoretical reference point for future studies. The empirical findings bring a new level of detailed knowledge on how SC professionals learn at work.

Practical implications

The results can assist SC professionals, HR managers and academic program leaders in their quest to develop competence in the field of SCM.

Originality/value

This paper makes a unique contribution to the human aspects of SCM literature by presenting the first study that investigates in depth the crucial but complex process of how workplace learning takes place for SC professionals in practice.

Informal learning, work engagement and their effects on work-family enrichment

Purpose

Drawing from work-family enrichment (WFE) model and path-goal theory of motivation, this paper proposes and tests work engagement (WE) as a mediator between informal learning and WFE.

Design/methodology/approach

Questionnaires measuring informal learning, WE and WFE were filled out by 290 hotel employees in India. The abovementioned linkages were tested via structural equation modeling.

Findings

The findings suggest that hotel employees' informal learning fosters their WE and WFE. The findings also reveal that WE partly mediates the impact of informal learning on WFE.

Originality/value

Most of employees' learning efforts in the workplace emerge from informal learning. However, there is still limited information whether employees' informal learning activates their WE, which is a timely and significant topic. Importantly, there is a paucity of evidence appertaining to the effect of informal learning on WFE, which is underrepresented in the current literature. Evidence about the mechanism linking informal learning to WFE is also sparse.

Self-Regulation in Informal Workplace Learning: Influence of Organizational Learning Culture and Job Characteristics

The digital shift leads to increasing changes. Employees can deal with changes through informal learning that enables needs-based development. For successful informal learning, self-regulated learning (SRL) is crucial, i.e., to set goals, plan, apply strategies, monitor, and regulate learning for example by applying resource strategies. However, existing SRL models all refer to formal learning settings. Because informal learning differs from formal learning, this study investigates whether SRL models can be transferred from formal learning environments into informal work settings. More precisely, are all facets relevant, and what are the relational patterns? Because informal workplace learning occurs through interaction with the context, this study investigates the influence of context, i.e., organizational learning culture and job characteristics (autonomy, task identity, and feedback) on SRL. Structural equation modeling of N = 170 employees in various industries showed the relevance of the self-reported metacognitive strategies planning, monitoring, and regulation; the resource strategies help-seeking and effort regulation; and deep processing strategy elaboration. However, there was no evidence for organization strategies. The learning strategies were associated with self-efficacy and mastery-approach goal orientation. Regarding context, results supported indirect effects over self-motivational beliefs of learning strategies. Organizational learning culture was connected with mastery-approach goal orientation, whereas job characteristics autonomy and feedback were related to self-efficacy, which were again related to SRL strategies. Therefore, context can empower employees not only to accomplish their tasks but to develop themselves by applying SRL strategies. The results are discussed, and practical implications are outlined.

A person-situation perspective of informal learning: the role of supervisor feedback environment

Purpose

Based on trait activation theory, the purpose of the present study is to explore the relationship between the antecedents and outcomes of informal learning with the moderating effect of supervisor feedback environment (SFE) in small- and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs).

Design/methodology/approach

Data (n = 388) were gathered from middle managers of Pakistan’s SME sector by following the purposive sampling technique. The proposed model was examined by means of structural equation modeling analysis with AMOS 24.

Findings

The study results delineate that middle managers with high-level self-efficacy and motivation to learn more actively participate in informal learning activities. The study also found that the SFE is a strong contextual moderator between the nexus of personal factors and informal learning. In addition, informal learning also has significant and positive effect on work engagement.

Practical implications

Human resource practitioners and organizational leaders of small businesses can use informal learning to improve employees’ skills and knowledge with less cost. For instance, management should use different strategies to enhance the effectiveness of informal learning by providing SFE.

Originality/value

There are numerous recent calls for research to ascertain the interaction of individual, contextual factors and outcomes of informal learning. The study addresses these voids by empirically examining antecedents and outcomes of informal learning simultaneously through the person–situation interaction perspective. It demonstrates that informal learning at the workplace becomes more effective in SFE.

Future Work Self and Employee Creativity: The Mediating Role of Informal Field-Based Learning for High Innovation Performance

In today’s highly uncertain environment, the value of creativity and innovation are increasingly critical. How individuals could improve their creativity and innovation performance has become the focus of attention. Future work self as an intrinsic motivation factor plays an important role in creativity and innovation. Based on the self-consistency theory, this study integrated proactive personality and informal field-based learning (IFBL) to explore the relationship between future work self and employee creativity to increase innovation performance. It used data from 201 R&D department employees in China’s high-tech companies. The results show that future work self has a positive effect on employee creativity and that IFBL mediates the relationship between future work self and employee creativity. This process is then positively moderated by a proactive personality. This study’s results help clarify the formation mechanism of creativity from the perspective of intrinsic motivation and indicate that future work self can drive individuals’ creativity and innovation efforts, especially under the consistency of self-concept, motivation and personality. This research also emphasizes the importance of IFBL in improving individual creativity and further organizational innovation performance. Implications for theory and management to help improve creativity and innovation performance are then discussed in detail.

Regulatory focus and learning

Purpose

The purpose of this study is to understand how regulatory focus influences informal learning behaviors. A growing body of research indicates that regulatory focus has significant consequences for goal pursuit in the workplace, yet it has not been readily studied or applied to the field of human resource management (Johnson et al., 2015). This is one of the few studies to examine the relationship between informal learning and regulatory focus theory that can be applied to the training and development field.

Design/methodology/approach

Using a qualitative research design, a semi-structured interview was used to increase the comparability of participant responses. Questions were asked in an open-ended manner, allowing for a structured approach for collecting information yet providing flexibility for the sake of gaining more in-depth responses. An interview guideline was used to standardize the questions and ensure similar kinds of information were obtained across participants. A typological analytic approach (Lincoln and Guba, 1985) was used to analyze the data.

Findings

In a sample of 16 working adults, (44% female and 56% male), participants who were identified as having either a promotion- or prevention-focus orientation were interviewed about types of informal learning strategies they used. The results revealed that performance success and failure have differential effects on learning behaviors for prevention and promotion-focus systems. Stress and errors motivate informal learning for the prevention-focus system, whereas positive affect motivates informal learning for the promotion-focus system. Prevention-focus participants articulated greater use of vicarious learning, reflective thinking and feedback-seeking as methods of informal learning. Promotion-focus participants articulated greater use of experimentation methods of informal learning.

Originality/value

This study provides an in-depth understanding of how regulatory focus influences informal learning. Few studies have considered how regulatory focus promotes distinct strategies and inclinations toward using informal learning. Performance success and failure have differential effects on informal learning behaviors for regulatory promotion and prevention systems. This has theoretical and practical implications in consideration of why employees engage in informal learning, and the tactics and strategies they use for learning.

What is responsible for the psychological capital-job performance relationship? An examination of the role of informal learning and person-environment fit

Purpose

The purpose of this paper is to advance our understanding of how psychological capital (PsyCap) influences job performance. The authors do so through adopting a moderated mediation framework. Specifically, the authors investigate the mediation role of informal learning in the PsyCap–job performance relationship and the moderating role of person–environment fit, i.e. the extent to which individual and organizational characteristics are compatible, in influencing the mediation.

Design/methodology/approach

The final sample consisted of 221 employees and their supervisors in South Korea.

Findings

The authors found that PsyCap had an indirect effect on job performance through informal learning. Moreover, the indirect effect of PsyCap on job performance through informal learning became stronger with low levels of person–organization (PO) and person–job (PJ) fit.

Research limitations/implications

The authors cannot completely rule out the effects of common method bias due to the cross-sectional research design.

Practical implications

The results reinforce the need for managers to understand employees’ level of PsyCap and take actions to enhance it because PsyCap can affect the extent to which individuals engage in informal learning, which in turn influences their job performance.

Originality/value

This paper adds to our understanding of the mechanisms and boundary conditions responsible for the PsyCap–job performance relationship. The authors found that informal learning operates as a mediator and both PO and PJ fit moderate the PsyCap–job performance relationship.

Does leader-member similarity in prosocial personality affect informal learning transfer?

Purpose

This study aims to examine a structural relationship among agreeableness, similarity in agreeableness, positive affect and transfer of informal learning. Also, it investigates the mediating role of motivation.

Design/methodology/approach

Data were collected by a survey via snowball sampling. In total, 742 respondents at 72 companies from multiple industries in South Korea participated. The authors performed exploratory confirmatory factor analyses and structural equation modeling to test the research model and hypotheses.

Findings

The results showed that agreeableness made a dual impact as a personal and a relational trait enhancing the employee’s positive affect, and motivation to learn fully mediated the relationship between agreeableness and transfer of informal learning. This supports that prosocial personality traits enhance the employee’s motivation, learning and learning application. The full mediation of motivation to learn between positive affect and informal learning transfer emphasizes the importance of intentionality on the part of employees in informal learning contexts.

Originality/value

Organizational research pays little attention to social perspectives of informal learning (Varela et al., 2011). The results highlight that workplace informal learning is a socio-psychological process; thus, examining social and psychological factors together would be beneficial.

Learning @ work: informal learning strategies of German craft workers

Purpose

In competitive labor markets, promoting employees’ learning becomes a key challenge for companies. However, in small German craft companies, employee development is always connected with worries about employee turnover. This study aims to investigate the current informal learning strategies of craft workers and how they use the strategies, the effect of learning on employees’ internal and external marketability and beneficial workplace characteristics (autonomy, feedback).

Design/methodology/approach

An online prestudy (N = 131) explored current informal learning strategies. In the main study (N = 526), cluster analysis was applied to identify patterns of informal learning strategies. The relations of these patterns to workplace characteristics and marketability were investigated.

Findings

Four informal learning strategies were found (informal learning from oneself, from others, from other sources and from new media). Craft workers used combinations of the strategies (i.e. patterns): three learning patterns (balanced high, person-oriented and balanced low) differed in intensity and combination with the learning strategy use. More intense learning patterns were positively related to internal marketability but were not related to external marketability. Higher autonomy and feedback availability were related to higher learning engagement.

Research limitations/implications

Studies should have a broader view of informal learning strategies concerning different learning patterns. The use of new media is a learning strategy that might increase in the future.

Practical implications

Craft companies could promote different informal learning strategies without worries about employee turnover.

Originality/value

The study reveals how German small- and medium-sized enterprise employees use informal learning strategies in digitalized times and how human resources development can use informal learning strategies.

Qualitative Job Insecurity and Informal Learning: A Longitudinal Test of Occupational Self-Efficacy and Psychological Contract Breach as Mediators

Current work life has become increasingly turbulent, which has sparked employees' concern about the loss of valued job features, coined as qualitative job insecurity. No prior research has investigated the relationship between this type of job insecurity and informal learning. However, informal learning might be particularly relevant for qualitatively job-insecure employees, as it might aid them to deal with the incessant changes in their work environment. This study examined whether qualitative job insecurity is associated with lower levels of three types of informal learning activities: information-seeking, feedback-seeking, and help-seeking behavior, and whether these relationships are mediated by a decline in occupational self-efficacy and an increase in psychological contract breach. We employed a three-wave panel design to survey 1433 Belgian employees. Results, by means of cross-lagged structural equation modelling, demonstrated that occupational self-efficacy mediates the relationship between qualitative job insecurity and information-seeking, feedback-seeking from colleagues, and feedback-seeking from one's supervisor, while psychological contract breach only mediated the relationship between qualitative job insecurity and feedback-seeking from one's supervisor. Both mediators were not significantly related to help-seeking behavior. This study demonstrates that qualitatively job-insecure employees are less likely to engage in informal learning via a decrease in occupational self-efficacy and an increase in psychological contract breach, thereby becoming even more vulnerable in an increasingly volatile work environment.

Workplace learning measures for human resource development: review and summary

Purpose

The purpose of this paper is to review the existing workplace learning measures used in empirical studies in human resource development (HRD).

Design/methodology/approach

By reviewing 141 studies on workplace learning published in six journals in the field of HRD, we identified nine measures for workplace learning. Tynjälä’s (2013) 3-P model of workplace learning was adopted as the framework to analyze the features of each measure in terms of presage, process and product.

Findings

Workplace Climate Questionnaire, Learning Opportunities Questionnaire, Approaches to Work Questionnaire and Self-regulated Learning in the Workplace Questionnaire belong to the presage category. Small Business Workplace Learning Survey and Workplace Learning Activities are categorized as the process dimension. The Questionnaire on Informal Workplace Learning Outcomes is in the product dimension. Informal Workplace Learning Survey and Workplace Adaptation Questionnaire are across the three categories.

Research limitations/implications

The authors identified the issues of existing workplace learning measures to emphasize the importance of reliable and valid measures for workplace learning and to gain the attention of researchers concerning these issues.

Practical implications

The findings can provide organizations and practitioners with insights and ideas on how to prepare employees to engage in diverse learning activities, how to support their learning activities and how to combine their learning activities with the existing job structure and work system.

Originality/value

This study is the first to review workplace learning measures in the field of HRD. The authors review the dimensions, items and reliability of each measure, and summarize the features of nine measures in terms of presage, process and product of workplace learning.

Integrative Literature Review on Informal Learning: Antecedents, Conceptualizations, and Future Directions

Despite intense interest in informal learning in the workplace, few attempts have been made to synthesize the current literature. This article provides an integrative and analytical review of prior empirical studies with two research questions: (1) How has informal learning been conceptualized and measured in prior research? and (2) What factors influencing informal learning in the workplace have been empirically identified? Based on the findings from the first research question, the authors propose a conceptual framework for understanding informal learning activities using three dimensions: learning competence, intentionality, and developmental relatedness. To answer the second question, Lewin’s field theory, which captures the importance of the person and the environment fit, was applied to identify antecedents of informal learning at the individual, group, and organizational levels. The authors then provide a critique of the state of the informal learning literature and outline targeted suggestions to guide practice and future empirical, theoretical work.

How multi-optional experts maintain and enhance their employability

How do freelancers and workers with frequently changing employment relationships top up their know-how and make themselves more employable? Highly skilled experts with multiple employment options must stay ahead of the game as they move from one job to market themselves for the next one. This article analyses how multi-optional experts improve their employability. It is based on a qualitative study of 17 multi-optional experts in knowledge-intensive industries such as information technology (IT), the media and consultancy as flexible employment is increasing and employability is critical in these highly dynamic fields. The study shows that multi-optional experts maintain and enhance their employability with various, mainly informal and self-organised learning methods. It identifies four types of worker – Flexible Adapter, Flexible Independent, Permalancer and Independent Freelancer – whose vocational development includes reactive, organisation-focused, active and self-focused strategies. In order to contribute to a better understanding of multi-optional experts’ employability this article focuses on their strategies, particularly on how they select and combine learning methods, and examines their motives to enhance their further development.

Distinctive Characteristics of Small Businesses as Sites for Informal Learning

Few studies have examined workplace factors that influence informal learning in small businesses and in general the studies are not framed by the characteristics of small businesses. To address this weakness in existing literature, we conducted a review of literatures which examine (a) workplace factors that influence informal learning, (b) small-business characteristics, and (c) factors influencing informal learning in small businesses. The several workplace factors that influence learning were categorized as job and relational and organizational characteristics. Each category was examined in relation to characteristics of small businesses. We outline what is known about each category and what we need to learn about them as they relate to informal learning in small businesses. For each category, propositions are generated that should be examined in future research. We also produce a heuristic conceptual framework that can be used to focus and bound future research that tests a different set of propositions.

Workplace training and generic and technical skill development in the Australian construction industry

Purpose

– The purpose of this paper is to investigate the current skills gap in both generic and skill areas within the construction industry in Queensland, Australia.

Design/methodology/approach

– An internet-based survey was administered to collect the opinions of construction employees about the workplace-training environment and their perceptions towards training. The survey intended to address the following research questions, specifically in relation to the construction industry.

Findings

– The survey results reveal that whilst overall participation in workplace training is high, the current workplace training environments do not foster balanced skill development. The study reveals that in the current absence of a formal and well-balanced training mechanism, construction workers generally resort to their own informal self-development initiatives to develop the needed role-specific theoretical knowledge.

Research limitations/implications

– The findings of the research are based on the data primarily collected in the construction industry in Queensland, Australia. The data are limited to a single Tier 2 construction company.

Practical implications

– The findings of this study can be utilised to suggest improvements in the current (or develop new) workplace training initiatives.

Social implications

– The research suggests that workplace training has positive relationship with career growth. The results suggest that in the construction industry, employees are generally well aware of the importance of workplace training in their career development and they largely appreciate training as being a critical factor for developing their capacity to perform their roles successfully, and to maintain their employability.

Originality/value

– This paper is unique as it investigates the current skills gap in both generic and skill areas within the construction industry in Queensland, Australia. So far no work has been undertaken to identify and discusses the main method of workplace learning within the Tier 2 industry in the context of Queensland Australia.