The effect of human interaction on guinea pig behavior in animal-assisted therapy

Relationship between Ear Temperature, Behaviour and Stress Hormones in Guinea Pigs (Cavia porcellus) during Different Interactive Activities in Zoos

Guinea pigs (Cavia porcellus) are used for interactive activities in zoos; therefore, it is important to investigate their welfare. This study aimed to evaluate the validity of measuring the guinea pigs' body temperature of guinea pigs through the ear canal and investigate the relationship among changes in the expression of negative behavior, changes in body temperature, and changes in salivary cortisol concentration, and examine the effects of different interactive activities. In the normal interactive activities performed at the site, the decreased body temperature of pigs was observed over time. In contrast, increased body temperature was observed in excessive interactive activities, which are not recommended. Among the negative behaviors, "Head turning" and "Locomotion" increased significantly in excessive interactions compared to normal interactions, but "Head tossing" decreased significantly over time in both types of interactions. "Freezing" was observed only in excessive interactions. Salivary cortisol concentration increased significantly for all activities. Investigating the relationship between the individual expression of negative behavior and changes in body temperature and changes cortisol level made it possible to uncover the potential for inferring an animal's physiological state. Combining ear temperature monitoring and behavioral observation during zoo interaction activities is recommended as an ethical and scientifically supported practice.

The Impact of Transportation on the Cortisol Level of Dwarf Rabbits Bred to Animal-Assisted Interventions

(1) Background: the popularity of rabbits has increased during the last decade and become the third most common companion animal in the EU. Rabbits' participation in Animal-Assisted Interventions (AAIs) is growing. It is highly important to ensure the well-being of the animals in AAIs. Whereas the needs and the advantages of people involved in AAI are becoming more and more evident, the needs of animals are not clearly defined, therefore, it is a great field of inquiry. Animals who are used for AAI need to be transported regularly, which itself might be a source of stress. (2) Methods: the stress of rabbits-caused by transportation-was measured in a non-invasive way: cortisol levels were determined from feces, based on their breakdown products. Eighteen animals were involved in the study. Rabbits experienced a 30 min transportation every second day for two weeks (altogether six times) while 126 samples were collected. (3) Results: rabbits could handle the transportation procedure the first time but subsequently the stress hormone metabolites in feces samples increased regardless of the offered treatments (hay, carrot and apple) during the carriage. (4) Conclusions: those owners who use rabbits for Animal-Assisted Interventions need to take into account that transportation itself is a stressful experience for the animals.

Handlers' Representations on Therapy Dogs' Welfare

While research on the benefits of animal-assisted interventions is beginning to build a significant body of work, studies on the well-being of therapy dogs are still in their infancy. Since handlers are the people responsible for their therapy dog's welfare, we interviewed 111 French handlers through an online questionnaire. Our results underlined that (i) therapy dogs' welfare is multidimensional when physical and psychological welfare, a balance between work and dog life and the settings and interactions of sessions are all taken into consideration. (ii) The response of our handlers emphasized that considering therapy dog welfare is important for the quality and safety of AAI. (iii) Three categories of risks factors were highlighted: the spatio-temporal framework (planning and environment), the interactions with beneficiaries and the handler themselves. It is particularly important that handlers talk about the negative impact of interactions with beneficiaries since they are at the heart of AAI, however there are few studies focusing on interactions as a stressor for dogs in this practice. Moreover, since there is a potential for positive bias in the handlers' representations, it is important that they be trained to identify and manage the stress in their dogs. Future research is particularly needed on the impact of interactions during sessions on therapy dog welfare.

Zoonotic Risk of Encephalitozoon cuniculi in Animal-Assisted Interventions: Laboratory Strategies for the Diagnosis of Infections in Humans and Animals

The involvement of animals for therapeutic purposes has very ancient roots. To date, it is clear that animal-assisted interventions (AAIs), in addition to ensuring the replacement of missing or deficient affects, improves psychophysiological parameters connected to human health. However, AAI could potentially present risks related to the transmission of infectious agents from animals to humans. Among these microorganisms, E. cuniculi is a microspore which induces pathological effects (fever, headache, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, breathlessness, respiratory symptoms, and weakness) in both humans and animals. Consequently, an accurate and fast diagnosis of E. cuniculi infection, as well as the identification of new diagnostic approaches, is of fundamental importance. This literature review was carried out to provide an extensive and comprehensive analysis of the most recent diagnostic techniques to prevent and care for E. cuniculi-associated risks in the AAI field.

The influence of human interaction on guinea pigs: Behavioral and thermographic changes during animal-assisted therapy

Guinea pigs are often involved in animal-assisted therapy (AAT) but there is little knowledge about the effects of human contact on guinea pigs involved in AAT. The aim of this study was to investigate effects of availability of a retreat, presence of conspecifics, prior experience with AAT, and human interaction on indicators of welfare in guinea pigs involved in AAT. Guinea pigs of both sexes and different ages (n=20) were assigned to a randomized, controlled within-subject trial with repeated measurements. Each guinea pig was tested in four settings: (I) therapy with retreat possibility with conspecifics, (II) therapy with retreat possibility without conspecifics, (III) therapy without retreat possibility, and (IV) setting without human interaction. We measured changes in eye temperature, as a proxy to infer stress levels, at 5-s intervals with a thermographic camera. All sessions were video recorded and the guinea pigs' behavior was coded using continuous recording and focal animal sampling. For the statistical analysis we used generalized linear mixed models, with therapy setting as a fixed effect and individual guinea pig as a random effect. We observed a temperature increase relative to baseline in settings (I) therapy with retreat with conspecifics present and (III) therapy without retreat. The percentage of time a guinea pig was petted was positively correlated with a rise in the eye temperature independent of the setting. Time spent eating was reduced in all therapy settings (I-III) compared to the setting without HAI (human animal interaction) (IV). In the setting with retreat (I), guinea pigs showed more active behaviors such as locomotive behavior or startling compared to the setting without retreat (III) and the setting without HAI (IV). When no retreat was available (III), they showed more passive behaviors, such as standing still or freezing compared to therapy with retreat (I). Based on our results we identified the behaviors "reduced eating", "increased startle" and "increased freezing" as indicators of an increased stress level. Petting the guinea pigs was correlated with a rise in the eye temperature and might be a factor which can cause stress. Our results support the suggestion that guinea pigs involved in AAT should have a retreat possibility, should have access to conspecifics, and should be given time to adapt to a new setting. In this way, stress might be reduced.

Current Status of Animal-Assisted Interventions in Scientific Literature: A Critical Comment on Their Internal Validity

Simple Summary

Animal-assisted interventions (AAIs) have been receiving ever-increasing attention from both practitioners (including psychologists, educators, social workers, and physicians) and clients alike. However, despite this interest, the literature does not provide an unanimous support for including dogs, horses, cats, or other animals in interventions. The present work analyzes whether or not this lack of support could be understood as the result of inconsistencies and/or biases present in the literature, analyzing the definition of AAIs, the role of animals in interventions, the relationship among AAIs and the way humans relate to non-human animals, and the way in which researchers study these phenomena. The present comment provides some clues on how to improve the development of the field, including the following: giving more prominence to cultural, anthrozoological aspects of AAIs; considering AAIs as modalities of well-known interventions, avoiding their representation as “alternative”, “new”, or “groundbreaking”; and making changes to the study and intervention of designs, thus making it easier to demonstrate the impact of human–animal interactions on improving outcomes.

Abstract

Many meta-analyses and systematic reviews have tried to assess the efficacy of animal-assisted interventions (AAIs), reaching inconsistent conclusions. The present work posits a critical exploration of the current literature, using some recent meta-analyses to exemplify the presence of unattended threats. The present comment illustrates that the field (1) comprehends inconsistencies regarding the terms and definitions of AAIs; (2) pays more attention to the characteristics of the animals than to the action mechanisms of AAIs; (3) does not provide a clear connection between anthrozoology (how humans and non-human animals interact in communities), benefits of the human–animal interaction (HAI), and the design of AAIs; and (4) implicitly reinforces these phenomena through research designs. Thus, some conclusions extracted from these meta-analyses need further discussion. Increasing the internal validity of AAIs in empirical studies is an urgent task, which can be addressed by (1) developing a better understanding of how anthrozoology, the HAI, and AAIs relate to each other; (2) highlighting the mechanisms that explain the results in an empirical and specific way; and (3) changing the design of interventions, adopting a component-centered approach, and focusing on the incremental efficacy and efficiency of AAI programs.

Is Animal-Assisted Therapy for Minimally Conscious State Beneficial? A Case Study

OBJECTIVE

The goal of this single case study was to qualitatively investigate the effects of animal-assisted therapy in a patient in a minimally conscious state.

METHOD

We present a 28-year-old female patient in a minimally conscious state following polytrauma after a sports accident leading to cerebral fat embolism causing multiple CNS ischemic lesions. She received eight animal-assisted therapy sessions and eight paralleled control therapy sessions over 4 weeks. We investigated the reactions of the patient during these sessions via qualitative behavior analysis.

RESULTS

The patient showed a broader variability and higher quality of behavior during animal-assisted therapy compared to control therapy sessions.

CONCLUSION

The observed behavioral changes showed higher arousal and increased awareness in the presence of an animal. The presented case supports the assumption that animal-assisted therapy can be a beneficial treatment approach for patients in a minimally conscious state.

Examining the Effects of Rabbit-Assisted Interventions in the Classroom Environment

Simple Summary

At the beginning of the first grade of elementary school, children generally show higher levels of anxiety, which continually decreases due to interactions with teachers. However, anxiety levels in children can also be decreased by using additional methods such as animal-assisted interventions in class. In this study, the efficiency of a rabbit-assisted intervention was examined in two first-grade classes with different backgrounds. In one of the classes, most of the pupils had special education needs. It could be concluded that rabbit-assisted interventions were particularly efficient where the anxiety levels of the children were high. This method seems to be useful in improving the efficacy of the educational ability of teachers.

Abstract

The effect of rabbit-assisted interventions on the anxiety levels of first-grade children at a primary school was analyzed. At the beginning of our research, no rabbit-assisted intervention was applied for 6 weeks in order to establish the level of stress caused by the start of the education period. We then alternated 6-week-long periods with and without rabbit-assisted intervention. The level of anxiety in children was assessed every three weeks both in the assisted and non-assisted periods, using the State–Trait Anxiety Inventory for Children, STAI-C. One of the examined classes did not apply the integrating policy while the other class contained pupils with special education needs (called the integrating class). Rabbit-assisted interventions proved to be efficient, as anxiety level scores were significantly lower during the animal-assisted periods. The rabbits actively initiated encounters with humans, not only in the framework of animal-assisted interventions, but also at other occasions. In cases of discomfort, the rabbit retreated to the cage and stayed inside for a short time. The children displayed signs of pleasure when the rabbits approached them. The favorable effect of animal assistance was more apparent in the integrating class. It could be concluded that rabbit-assisted interventions were suitable for decreasing the anxiety levels of elementary school children, improving the efficacy of the educational ability of teachers.

The Human-Animal Relationship as the Focus of Animal-Assisted Interventions: A One Health Approach

BACKGROUND

Animal-assisted intervention (AAIs) represent an adequate expression of integrated medicine, according to the One Health approach. We argue that AAIs are interventions based on interspecific relationships between humans and animals. Although there are many studies on the effects of AAIs on animal and human health and wellbeing, research is still needed to give us more data. For example, information is still lacking on the aspects characterizing and influencing the interspecific relationships occurring in AAIs. The efficacy of an intervention based on interspecific relationships will be influenced by different factors, such as attachment styles and personalities of both the animal and the handler, an appropriate choice of animal species and their individuality, animal educational training techniques, the relationship between the handler and the animal, and relational reciprocity between animal, the patients, and members of the working team.

METHOD

This article aims to contribute to the study of interspecific relationships in AAIs via theoretical considerations. An interspecific relationship determines the result of safe interventions, which directly influences the welfare of the animal. Results and considerations: AAIs should be evaluated systemically as a network within a process in which every component interacts with and influences other components. Standardized methods using appropriate tests and parameters are needed to better select appropriate animals (i.e., species and individual subjects) using interspecific relational competences as well as appropriate educational training methods and health protocols to assess potential risks.

Changes of Oxytocin and Serotonin Values in Dialysis Patients after Animal Assisted Activities (AAAs) with a Dog—A Preliminary Study

Our study aimed to measure the levels of serotonin and oxytocin in patients affected by end-stage renal disease (ESRD), undergoing dialysis and participating in a program of animal-assisted activities (AAAs) with a dog. Ten patients with comparable levels of ESRD were enrolled. A blood sample was taken before the start of the study in order to establish basal levels. Eleven meetings were held once a week for 3 months during the last hour of dialysis, and blood samples were collected before and after AAAs. Two more meetings, one month apart from each other, were held two months later without the dog but with the same veterinarian zootherapist. Blood was drawn at the beginning and at the end of each meeting. The samples were then processed for the measurement of serotonin and oxytocin, and data obtained were analysed using analysis of variance with mixed effect models. The results show an increasing level of both serotonin and oxytocin between subsequent meetings with the dog and an increasing trend of inter-intervention levels. Overall, the results suggest that AAAs lead to modifications of serotonin and oxytocin levels, which are also accompanied by behavioural changes of patients.

Do Animals Perceive Human Developmental Disabilities? Guinea Pigs' Behaviour with Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders and Children with Typical Development. A Pilot Study

Some cues used by humans and animals during human-animal interactions may have significant effects, modulating these interactions (e.g., gaze direction, heart rate). This study aimed to determine whether an animal in human-animal interactions is capable of "perceiving" its human partner's potential developmental "disabilities". To test this hypothesis, we studied guinea pigs (GP) behaviours in the presence of 44 6-to-12-year-old children with either typical development (TD children) or with autism spectrum disorders (ASD children). Thus, we recorded the GP behaviours during the entire session (to establish their time budget) and focused in particular on the onset and end of physical interactions. The GP behaviours (e.g., feeding, resting, self-grooming, exploring) were not significantly different between the two groups of children during the whole session. GP behaviours in the presence of children differed slightly when encountering ASD children versus TD children: more positive behaviours toward ASD children at the onset, more feeding and resting in the presence of TD children toward the end of an interaction. TD children showed longer-lasting interactions. One could explain this by GP curiosity toward ASD children behaviours (e.g., no marked behaviours such as attempts to touch), whereas GPs seemed calmer at the end with TD children (i.e., interacting with ASD children may be a little stressful). This partly gave support to our study's hypothesis. GPs seemed to perceive developmental disabilities during a first encounter with children and to adjust their behaviours to that of children. We discuss the issues of animal training, animals' well-being and acute stress, whether they are pets or used in animal-assisted interventions. Further studies (on pets or animal-assisted interventions) are warranted.

A One Health Research Framework for Animal-Assisted Interventions

BACKGROUND

The integration of animals into healthcare, referred to as animal-assisted intervention, is a rapidly growing research field and was previously related to One Health. However, the assessment of synergistic effects of animal-assisted interventions (AAI) has been poorly addressed to date.

METHOD

We discuss experiences in integrated human and animal assessments in AAI and provide a methodical framework for One Health approaches in AAI research. We propose theoretical consideration of an integrated human and animal health assessment, as well as the use of such an integrated approach in research. Based on the existing research, we argue that, for a deeper understanding of AAI mechanisms, parallel research designs are needed.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSION

Our paper shows that a One Health study design is necessary to ensure that a tradeoff in health of animals is prevented and that an added value, or synergistic benefit, can be achieved on both sides during animal-assisted interventions.

Describing the Use of Animals in Animal-Assisted Intervention Research

Currently, there has been growing attention to animal welfare in animal-assisted interventions (AAI). However, there is a lack of scrutiny regarding what steps to take to ensure animal wellbeing during AAI research. The Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC) reviews, monitors, and approves all research involving animal subjects in order to ensure an animal's ethical and humane treatment. However, AAI publications rarely report IACUC approval. The purpose of this critical review was to determine the frequency of IACUC approval and to report the descriptions of animal use in AAI research publications. In the 139 articles reviewed, 14 (10%) studies reported attaining IACUC approval; 4/139 (3%) reported an adverse outcome on at least one animal used in the study. The publications inconsistently reported the training or certification and veterinary care of the animals. Lacking IACUC approval in AAI studies indicates that the field underutilizes this method of monitoring animal health and welfare. The IACUC should assess, approve, and monitor research protocols involving animals prior to conducting every study to safeguard AAI animal welfare.