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Li A, Wang Q, Huang Y, Hu L, Li S, Wang Q, Yu Y, Zhang H, Tang DYY, Show PL, Feng S. Can egg yolk antibodies terminate the CSBV infection in apiculture? Virus Res 2023; 328:199080. [PMID: 36882131 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2023.199080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2022] [Revised: 02/10/2023] [Accepted: 02/20/2023] [Indexed: 03/08/2023]
Abstract
Chinese sacbrood virus (CSBV) is the most severe pathogen of Apis cerana, which leads to serious fatal diseases in bee colonies and eventual catastrophe for the Chinese beekeeping industry. Additionally, CSBV can potentially infect Apis mellifera by bridging the species barrier and significantly affect the productivity of the honey industry. Although several approaches, such as feeding royal jelly, traditional Chinese medicine, and double-stranded RNA treatments, have been employed to suppress CSBV infection, their practical applicabilities are constrained due to their poor effectiveness. In recent years, specific egg yolk antibodies (EYA) have been increasingly utilized in passive immunotherapy for infectious diseases without any side effects. According to both laboratory research and practical use, EYA have demonstrated superior protection for bees against CSBV infection. This review provided an in-depth analysis of the issues and drawbacks in this field in addition to provide a thorough summary of current advancements in CSBV studies. Some promising strategies for the synergistic study of EYA against CSBV, including the exploitation of novel antibody drugs, novel TCM monomer/formula determination, and development of nucleotide drugs, are also proposed in this review. Furthermore, the prospects for the future perspectives of EYA research and applications are presented. Collectively, EYA would terminate CSBV infection soon, as well as will provide scientific guidance and references to control and manage other viral infections in apiculture.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aifang Li
- Medical College, Henan University of Chinese Medicine, Zhengzhou, Henan 450046, China
| | - Qianfang Wang
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Henan University of Science and Technology, Luoyang, Henan 471023, China
| | - Yu Huang
- Medical College, Henan University of Chinese Medicine, Zhengzhou, Henan 450046, China
| | - Lina Hu
- Medical College, Henan University of Chinese Medicine, Zhengzhou, Henan 450046, China
| | - Shuxuan Li
- Medical College, Henan University of Chinese Medicine, Zhengzhou, Henan 450046, China
| | - Qianqian Wang
- Medical College, Henan University of Chinese Medicine, Zhengzhou, Henan 450046, China
| | - Yangfan Yu
- Medical College, Henan University of Chinese Medicine, Zhengzhou, Henan 450046, China
| | - Haizhou Zhang
- Luoyang Fengzaokang Biotechnological Co. Ltd., Luoyang, Henan 471000, China
| | - Doris Ying Ying Tang
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Science and Engineering, University of Nottingham Malaysia, Semenyih, Selangor Darul Ehsan 43500, Malaysia
| | - Pau Loke Show
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Science and Engineering, University of Nottingham Malaysia, Semenyih, Selangor Darul Ehsan 43500, Malaysia; Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory for Subtropical Water Environment and Marine Biological Resources Protection, Wenzhou University, Wenzhou 325035, China; Department of Sustainable Engineering, Saveetha School of Engineering, SIMATS, Chennai 602105, India.
| | - Shuying Feng
- Medical College, Henan University of Chinese Medicine, Zhengzhou, Henan 450046, China; Luoyang Fengzaokang Biotechnological Co. Ltd., Luoyang, Henan 471000, China.
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Dang X, Li Y, Li X, Wang C, Ma Z, Wang L, Fan X, Li Z, Huang D, Xu J, Zhou Z. Lipidomic Profiling Reveals Distinct Differences in Sphingolipids Metabolic Pathway between Healthy Apis cerana cerana larvae and Chinese Sacbrood Disease. INSECTS 2021; 12:insects12080703. [PMID: 34442269 PMCID: PMC8396520 DOI: 10.3390/insects12080703] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2021] [Revised: 07/28/2021] [Accepted: 08/03/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Chinese sacbrood disease (CSD), which is caused by Chinese sacbrood virus (CSBV), is a major viral disease in Apis cerana cerana larvae. Analysis of lipid composition is critical to the study of CSBV replication. The host lipidome profiling during CSBV infection has not been conducted. This paper identified the lipidome of the CSBV-larvae interaction through high-resolution mass spectrometry. A total of 2164 lipids were detected and divided into 20 categories. Comparison of lipidome between healthy and CSBV infected-larvae showed that 266 lipid species were altered by CSBV infection. Furthermore, qRT-PCR showed that various sphingolipid enzymes and the contents of sphingolipids in the larvae were increased, indicating that sphingolipids may be important for CSBV infection. Importantly, Cer (d14:1 + hO/21:0 + O), DG (41:0e), PE (18:0e/18:3), SM (d20:0/19:1), SM (d37:1), TG (16:0/18:1/18:3), TG (18:1/20:4/21:0) and TG (43:7) were significantly altered in both CSBV_24 h vs. CK_24 h and CSBV_48 h vs. CK_48 h. Moreover, TG (39:6), which was increased by more than 10-fold, could be used as a biomarker for the early detection of CSD. This study provides evidence that global lipidome homeostasis in A. c. cerana larvae is remodeled after CSBV infection. Detailed studies in the future may improve the understanding of the relationship between the sphingolipid pathway and CSBV replication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoqun Dang
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Vector Insect, College of Life Science, Chongqing Normal University, Chongqing 401331, China; (X.D.); (Y.L.); (X.L.); (C.W.); (Z.M.); (L.W.); (X.F.); (Z.L.); (D.H.)
| | - Yan Li
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Vector Insect, College of Life Science, Chongqing Normal University, Chongqing 401331, China; (X.D.); (Y.L.); (X.L.); (C.W.); (Z.M.); (L.W.); (X.F.); (Z.L.); (D.H.)
| | - Xiaoqing Li
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Vector Insect, College of Life Science, Chongqing Normal University, Chongqing 401331, China; (X.D.); (Y.L.); (X.L.); (C.W.); (Z.M.); (L.W.); (X.F.); (Z.L.); (D.H.)
| | - Chengcheng Wang
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Vector Insect, College of Life Science, Chongqing Normal University, Chongqing 401331, China; (X.D.); (Y.L.); (X.L.); (C.W.); (Z.M.); (L.W.); (X.F.); (Z.L.); (D.H.)
| | - Zhengang Ma
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Vector Insect, College of Life Science, Chongqing Normal University, Chongqing 401331, China; (X.D.); (Y.L.); (X.L.); (C.W.); (Z.M.); (L.W.); (X.F.); (Z.L.); (D.H.)
| | - Linling Wang
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Vector Insect, College of Life Science, Chongqing Normal University, Chongqing 401331, China; (X.D.); (Y.L.); (X.L.); (C.W.); (Z.M.); (L.W.); (X.F.); (Z.L.); (D.H.)
| | - Xiaodong Fan
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Vector Insect, College of Life Science, Chongqing Normal University, Chongqing 401331, China; (X.D.); (Y.L.); (X.L.); (C.W.); (Z.M.); (L.W.); (X.F.); (Z.L.); (D.H.)
| | - Zhi Li
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Vector Insect, College of Life Science, Chongqing Normal University, Chongqing 401331, China; (X.D.); (Y.L.); (X.L.); (C.W.); (Z.M.); (L.W.); (X.F.); (Z.L.); (D.H.)
| | - Dunyuan Huang
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Vector Insect, College of Life Science, Chongqing Normal University, Chongqing 401331, China; (X.D.); (Y.L.); (X.L.); (C.W.); (Z.M.); (L.W.); (X.F.); (Z.L.); (D.H.)
| | - Jinshan Xu
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Vector Insect, College of Life Science, Chongqing Normal University, Chongqing 401331, China; (X.D.); (Y.L.); (X.L.); (C.W.); (Z.M.); (L.W.); (X.F.); (Z.L.); (D.H.)
- Correspondence: (J.X.); (Z.Z.)
| | - Zeyang Zhou
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Vector Insect, College of Life Science, Chongqing Normal University, Chongqing 401331, China; (X.D.); (Y.L.); (X.L.); (C.W.); (Z.M.); (L.W.); (X.F.); (Z.L.); (D.H.)
- State Key Laboratory of Silkworm Genome Biology, College of Biotechnology, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Microsporidia Infection and Control, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China
- Correspondence: (J.X.); (Z.Z.)
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Huang WF, Zhang Y, Mehmood S, Wang Z, Hou C, Li Z. Updating Sacbrood Virus Quantification PCR Method Using a TaqMan-MGB Probe. Vet Sci 2021; 8:vetsci8040063. [PMID: 33924550 PMCID: PMC8070565 DOI: 10.3390/vetsci8040063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2021] [Revised: 04/01/2021] [Accepted: 04/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Sacbrood virus (SBV) is a common honey bee virus disease. SBV variants and strains identified in Asian honey bees, Apis cerana, have created confusion in identifications. Although the regional names indicated the expansions of the virus in new regions, pathogenesis, and genomes of these variants are not distinct enough to be a separate virus species. However, current SBV qPCR methods may not detect newly identified A. cerana SBV variants (Ac SBV) according to the genome sequences. Since these Ac SBV can naturally infect A. mellifera and possibly other hymenopterans, ignorance of Ac SBV variants in detection methods is simply unwise. In this report, we updated the qPCR method based on Blanchard's design that used conserved regions of VP1 to design a TaqMan method with an MGB (minor groove binder) probe. We tested the method in bees and hornets, including A. mellifera, A. cerana, and Vespa velutina. The updated primers and the probe can match published SBV and Ac SBV genomes in databases, and this updated method has reasonable sensitivity and flexibility to be applied as a detection and quantification method before the discovery of variants with more mutated VP1 gene.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei-Fone Huang
- College of Animal Science (College of Bee Science), Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China; (Y.Z.); (Z.L.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Yakun Zhang
- College of Animal Science (College of Bee Science), Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China; (Y.Z.); (Z.L.)
| | - Shahid Mehmood
- Chemical Ecology Group, Key Laboratory of Tropical Forest Ecology, Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650000, China; (S.M.); (Z.W.)
| | - Zhengwei Wang
- Chemical Ecology Group, Key Laboratory of Tropical Forest Ecology, Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650000, China; (S.M.); (Z.W.)
| | - Chunsheng Hou
- Institute of Apicultural Research, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China;
- Key Laboratory of Pollinating Insect Biology, Ministry of Agriculture, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Zhiguo Li
- College of Animal Science (College of Bee Science), Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China; (Y.Z.); (Z.L.)
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Cameron TC, Wiles D, Beddoe T. Current Status of Loop-Mediated Isothermal Amplification Technologies for the Detection of Honey Bee Pathogens. Front Vet Sci 2021; 8:659683. [PMID: 33912610 PMCID: PMC8071855 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2021.659683] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2021] [Accepted: 03/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Approximately one-third of the typical human Western diet depends upon pollination for production, and honey bees (Apis mellifera) are the primary pollinators of numerous food crops, including fruits, nuts, vegetables, and oilseeds. Regional large scale losses of managed honey bee populations have increased significantly during the last decade. In particular, asymptomatic infection of honey bees with viruses and bacterial pathogens are quite common, and co-pathogenic interaction with other pathogens have led to more severe and frequent colony losses. Other multiple environmental stress factors, including agrochemical exposure, lack of quality forage, and reduced habitat, have all contributed to the considerable negative impact upon bee health. The ability to accurately diagnose diseases early could likely lead to better management and treatment strategies. While many molecular diagnostic tests such as real-time PCR and MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry have been developed to detect honey bee pathogens, they are not field-deployable and thus cannot support local apiary husbandry decision-making for disease control. Here we review the field-deployable technology termed loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) and its application to diagnose honey bee infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timothy C Cameron
- Department of Animal, Plant and Soil Science, Centre for AgriBioscience, La Trobe University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia.,Centre for Livestock Interactions With Pathogens, La Trobe University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Danielle Wiles
- Department of Animal, Plant and Soil Science, Centre for AgriBioscience, La Trobe University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia.,Centre for Livestock Interactions With Pathogens, La Trobe University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Travis Beddoe
- Department of Animal, Plant and Soil Science, Centre for AgriBioscience, La Trobe University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia.,Centre for Livestock Interactions With Pathogens, La Trobe University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
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Prasannakumar MK, Parivallal BP, Manjunatha C, Pramesh D, Narayan KS, Venkatesh G, Banakar SN, Mahesh HB, Vemanna RS, Rangaswamy KT. Rapid genotyping of bacterial leaf blight resistant genes of rice using loop-mediated isothermal amplification assay. Mol Biol Rep 2021; 48:467-474. [PMID: 33394228 DOI: 10.1007/s11033-020-06077-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2020] [Accepted: 12/10/2020] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
The use of resistant (R) genes is the most effective strategy to manage bacterial leaf blight (BLB) disease of rice. Several attempts were made to incorporate R genes into susceptible rice cultivars using marker-assisted backcross breeding (MABB). However, MABB relies exclusively on PCR for foreground selection of R genes, which requires expensive equipment for thermo-cycling and visualization of results; hence, it is limited to sophisticated research facilities. Isothermal nucleic acid amplification techniques such as loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) assay do not require thermo-cycling during the assay. Therefore, it will be the best alternative to PCR-based genotyping. In this study, we have developed a LAMP assay for the specific and sensitive genotyping of seven BLB resistance (R) genes viz., Xa1, Xa3, Xa4, Xa7, Xa10, Xa11, and Xa21 in rice. Gene-specific primers were designed for the LAMP assay. The LAMP assay was optimized for time, temperature, and template DNA concentration. For effective detection, incubation at 60 °C for 30 min was optimum for all seven R genes. A DNA intercalating dye ethidium bromide and a calorimetric dye hydroxynaphthol blue was used for result visualization. Further, sensitivity assay revealed that the LAMP assay could detect R genes at 100 fg of template DNA compared to 1 ng and 10 pg, respectively, in conventional PCR and q-PCR assays. The LAMP assay developed in this study provides a simple, specific, sensitive, robust, and cost-effective method for foreground selection of R genes in the resistance breeding programs of resource-poor laboratory.
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Affiliation(s)
- M K Prasannakumar
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore, India.
| | - Buela P Parivallal
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore, India
| | - Chennappa Manjunatha
- ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, Regional Station Wellington, Nilgiris, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Devanna Pramesh
- Rice Pathology Laboratory, All India Coordinated Rice Improvement Programme, Gangavathi, University of Agricultural Sciences, Raichur, Karnataka, India.
| | - Karthik S Narayan
- Centre for Advanced Studies in Botany, University of Madras, Guindy Campus, Chennai, India
| | - Gopal Venkatesh
- Centre for Advanced Studies in Botany, University of Madras, Guindy Campus, Chennai, India
| | - Sahana N Banakar
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore, India
| | - H B Mahesh
- Department of Genetics and Plant Breeding, University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore, Karnataka, India
| | - Ramu S Vemanna
- Department of Biotechnology, Regional Centre for Biotechnology, Gurgaon, Haryana, India
| | - K T Rangaswamy
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore, India
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Lannutti L, Mira A, Basualdo M, Rodriguez G, Erler S, Silva V, Gisder S, Genersch E, Florin-Christensen M, Schnittger L. Development of a loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) and a direct LAMP for the specific detection of Nosema ceranae, a parasite of honey bees. Parasitol Res 2020; 119:3947-3956. [DOI: 10.1007/s00436-020-06915-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2020] [Accepted: 09/29/2020] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
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Li M, Sun L, Ma Y, Fei D, Ma M. Development of a sandwich ELISA for the detection of Chinese sacbrood virus infection. Arch Virol 2020; 165:1551-1556. [PMID: 32356186 DOI: 10.1007/s00705-020-04634-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/01/2020] [Accepted: 03/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Chinese sacbrood disease (CSBD) is a highly pathogenic infectious disease in bees that is caused by Chinese sacbrood virus (CSBV). Although several molecular detection methods have been developed for CSBV, there are no commercially available enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) kits. We therefore developed a sandwich ELISA to detect CSBV antigens. To this end, monoclonal antibodies were produced using VP2 as an immunogen and subsequently characterized. Hybridomas were screened for the secretion of immunoglobulin G (IgG). Using an unlabeled monoclonal antibody (mAb) for coating and a horseradish peroxidase (HRP)-labeled mAb for detection, a CSBV sandwich ELISA method was established. This method showed specificity for CSBV and did not show cross-reactivity with other bee viruses. The detection limit of the sandwich ELISA was 3.675 × 104 copies/µL. Sixty bee larvae were tested using our sandwich ELISA method, and the presence of CSBV was verified by reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). The total coincidence rate was 90%. Thus, a sandwich ELISA method with high specificity and accuracy and a detection limit of 3.675 × 104 copies/µL has been successfully developed and can be used for the clinical detection of CSBV. This method will support rapid diagnosis, real-time monitoring, and early warning of CSBD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ming Li
- Jinzhou Medical University, No. 40, Section 3 Songpo Road, Jinzhou, 121001, Liaoning Province, China
| | - Li Sun
- Jinzhou Medical University, No. 40, Section 3 Songpo Road, Jinzhou, 121001, Liaoning Province, China
| | - Yueyu Ma
- Jinzhou Medical University, No. 40, Section 3 Songpo Road, Jinzhou, 121001, Liaoning Province, China
| | - Dongliang Fei
- Jinzhou Medical University, No. 40, Section 3 Songpo Road, Jinzhou, 121001, Liaoning Province, China.
| | - Mingxiao Ma
- Jinzhou Medical University, No. 40, Section 3 Songpo Road, Jinzhou, 121001, Liaoning Province, China.
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Kim JM, Lim SJ, Kim S, Kim M, Kim B, Tai TA, Kim S, Yoon B. Rapid detection of deformed wing virus in honeybee using ultra-rapid qPCR and a DNA-chip. J Vet Sci 2020; 21:e4. [PMID: 31940683 PMCID: PMC7000893 DOI: 10.4142/jvs.2020.21.e4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2019] [Revised: 09/10/2019] [Accepted: 09/24/2019] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Fast and accurate detection of viral RNA pathogens is important in apiculture. A polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based detection method has been developed, which is simple, specific, and sensitive. In this study, we rapidly (in 1 min) synthesized cDNA from the RNA of deformed wing virus (DWV)-infected bees (Apis mellifera), and then, within 10 min, amplified the target cDNA by ultra-rapid qPCR. The PCR products were hybridized to a DNA-chip for confirmation of target gene specificity. The results of this study suggest that our method might be a useful tool for detecting DWV, as well as for the diagnosis of RNA virus-mediated diseases on-site.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jung Min Kim
- Department of Life Science, College of Fusion Science, Kyonggi University, Suwon 16227, Korea
| | - Su Jin Lim
- Department of Life Science, College of Fusion Science, Kyonggi University, Suwon 16227, Korea
| | - SoMin Kim
- Department of Life Science, College of Fusion Science, Kyonggi University, Suwon 16227, Korea
| | - MoonJung Kim
- Department of Life Science, College of Fusion Science, Kyonggi University, Suwon 16227, Korea
| | - ByoungHee Kim
- Department of Life Science, College of Fusion Science, Kyonggi University, Suwon 16227, Korea
| | - Truong A Tai
- Department of Life Science, College of Fusion Science, Kyonggi University, Suwon 16227, Korea
| | - Seonmi Kim
- Department of Life Science, College of Fusion Science, Kyonggi University, Suwon 16227, Korea.
| | - ByoungSu Yoon
- Department of Life Science, College of Fusion Science, Kyonggi University, Suwon 16227, Korea
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Li M, Fei D, Sun L, Ma M. Genetic and phylogenetic analysis of Chinese sacbrood virus isolates from Apis mellifera. PeerJ 2019; 7:e8003. [PMID: 31741790 PMCID: PMC6858986 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.8003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2019] [Accepted: 10/07/2019] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Sacbrood virus (SBV) is one of the most pathogenic honeybee viruses that exhibits host specificity and regional variations. The SBV strains that infect the Chinese honeybee Apis cerana are called Chinese SBVs (CSBVs). Methods In this study, a CSBV strain named AmCSBV-SDLY-2016 (GenBank accession No. MG733283) infecting A. mellifera was identified by electron microscopy, its protein composition was analyzed by sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and agar gel immunodiffusion assay, and its nucleotide sequence was identified using a series of reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction fragments of AmCSBV-SDLY-2016 generated using SBV/CSBV-specific primers. To investigate phylogenetic relationships of the CSBV isolates, a phylogenetic tree of the complete open reading frames (ORF) of the CSBV sequences was constructed using MEGA 6.0; then, the similarity and recombination events among the isolated CSBV strains were analyzed using SimPlot and RDP4 software, respectively. Results Sequencing results revealed the complete 8,794-nucleotide long complete genomic RNA of the strain, with a single large ORF (189–8,717) encoding 2,843 amino acids. Comparison of the deduced amino acid sequence with the SBV/CSBV reference sequences deposited in the GenBank database identified helicase, protease, and RNA-dependent RNA polymerase domains; the structural genes were located at the 5′ end, whereas the non-structural genes were found at the 3′ end. Multiple sequence alignment showed that AmCSBV-SDLY-2016 had a 17-amino acid (aa) and a single aa deletion at positions 711–729 and 2,128, respectively, as compared with CSBV-GD-2002, and a 16-aa deletion (positions 711–713 and 715–728) as compared with AmSBV-UK-2000. However, AmCSBV-SDLY-2016 was similar to the CSBV-JLCBS-2014 strain, which infects A. cerana. AmCSBV-SDLY-2016 ORF shared 92.4–97.1% identity with the genomes of other CSBV strains (94.5–97.7% identity for deduced amino acids). AmCSBV-SDLY-2016 was least similar (89.5–90.4% identity) to other SBVs but showed maximum similarity with the previously reported CSBV-FZ-2014 strain. The phylogenetic tree constructed from AmCSBV-SDLY-2016 and 43 previously reported SBV/CSBV sequences indicated that SBV/CSBV strains clustered according to the host species and country of origin; AmCSBV-SDLY-2016 clustered with other previously reported Chinese and Asian strains (AC genotype SBV, as these strains originated from A. cerana) but was separate from the SBV genomes originating from Europe (AM genotype SBV, originating from A. mellifera). A SimPlot graph of SBV genomes confirmed the high variability, especially between the AC genotype SBV and AM genotype SBV. This genomic diversity may reflect the adaptation of SBV to specific hosts, ability of CSBV to cross the species barrier, and the spatial distances that separate CSBVs from other SBVs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ming Li
- College Animal Husbandry and Veterinary, Jinzhou Medical University, Jinzhou, Liaoning, China
| | - Dongliang Fei
- College Animal Husbandry and Veterinary, Jinzhou Medical University, Jinzhou, Liaoning, China
| | - Li Sun
- College Animal Husbandry and Veterinary, Jinzhou Medical University, Jinzhou, Liaoning, China
| | - Mingxiao Ma
- College Animal Husbandry and Veterinary, Jinzhou Medical University, Jinzhou, Liaoning, China
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Ko CY, Chiang ZL, Liao RJ, Chang ZT, Chang JC, Kuo TY, Chen YW, Nai YS. Dynamics of Apis cerana Sacbrood Virus (AcSBV) Prevalence in Apis cerana (Hymenoptera: Apidae) in Northern Taiwan and Demonstration of its Infection in Apis mellifera (Hymenoptera: Apidae). JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 2019; 112:2055-2066. [PMID: 31314109 DOI: 10.1093/jee/toz174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2018] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Since 2016, Apis cerana sacbrood virus (AcSBV) has been recorded in Taiwan. It is epizootic in Apis cerana (Hymenoptera: Apidae) and causing serious loss of A. cerana. Herein, we performed a long-term survey of AcSBV prevalence in the populations of A. cerana in Northern Taiwan from January 2017 to July 2018. The surveillance of AcSBV prevalence in A. mellifera (Hymenoptera: Apidae) populations was starting and further confirmed by sequencing since April 2017; thus, these data were also included in this survey. In our survey, the average prevalence rates of AcSBV were 72 and 53% in A. cerana and A. mellifera, respectively, in 2017, which decreased to 45 and 27% in 2018. For the spatial analysis of AcSBV in two honey bee populations, Hsinchu showed the highest prevalence, followed by New Taipei, Yilan, Taipei, and Keelung, suggesting that AcSBV might have come from the southern part of Taiwan. Interestingly, the AcSBV prevalence rates from A. cerana and A. mellifera cocultured apiaries gradually synchronized. The result of phylogenetic analysis and comparison of the annual AcSBV prevalence in A. cerana-only, A. mellifera-only, and A. cerana/A. mellifera cocultured sample sites indicate cross-infection between A. cerana and A. mellifera; however, AcSBV may lose the advantage of virulence in A. mellifera. The evidence suggested that the transmission of AcSBV might occur among these two honey bee species in the field. Therefore, A. mellifera may serve as a guard species to monitor AcSBV in A. cerana, but the cross-infection still needs to be surveyed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chong-Yu Ko
- Department of Biotechnology and Animal Science, National Ilan University, Yilan City, Taiwan
| | - Zong-Lin Chiang
- Department of Biotechnology and Animal Science, National Ilan University, Yilan City, Taiwan
| | - Ruo-Jyun Liao
- Department of Biotechnology and Animal Science, National Ilan University, Yilan City, Taiwan
| | - Zih-Ting Chang
- Department of Biotechnology and Animal Science, National Ilan University, Yilan City, Taiwan
| | - Ju-Chun Chang
- Department of Biotechnology and Animal Science, National Ilan University, Yilan City, Taiwan
| | - Tsun-Yung Kuo
- Department of Biotechnology and Animal Science, National Ilan University, Yilan City, Taiwan
| | - Yue-Wen Chen
- Department of Biotechnology and Animal Science, National Ilan University, Yilan City, Taiwan
| | - Yu-Shin Nai
- Department of Entomology, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung City, Taiwan
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11
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Kim JM, Lim SJ, Kim S, Kim M, Kim B, Tai TA, Kim S, Yoon B. Rapid detection of deformed wing virus in honeybee using ultra-rapid qPCR and a DNA-chip. J Vet Sci 2019. [DOI: 10.4142/jvs.2019.20.e72] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Jung-Min Kim
- Department of Life Science, College of Fusion Science, Kyonggi University, Suwon 16227, Korea
| | - Su-Jin Lim
- Department of Life Science, College of Fusion Science, Kyonggi University, Suwon 16227, Korea
| | - SoMin Kim
- Department of Life Science, College of Fusion Science, Kyonggi University, Suwon 16227, Korea
| | - MoonJung Kim
- Department of Life Science, College of Fusion Science, Kyonggi University, Suwon 16227, Korea
| | - ByoungHee Kim
- Department of Life Science, College of Fusion Science, Kyonggi University, Suwon 16227, Korea
| | - Truong A Tai
- Department of Life Science, College of Fusion Science, Kyonggi University, Suwon 16227, Korea
| | - Seonmi Kim
- Department of Life Science, College of Fusion Science, Kyonggi University, Suwon 16227, Korea
| | - ByoungSu Yoon
- Department of Life Science, College of Fusion Science, Kyonggi University, Suwon 16227, Korea
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12
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Sun L, Li M, Fei D, Diao Q, Wang J, Li L, Ma M. Preparation and Application of Egg Yolk Antibodies Against Chinese Sacbrood Virus Infection. Front Microbiol 2018; 9:1814. [PMID: 30123212 PMCID: PMC6085425 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.01814] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2018] [Accepted: 07/19/2018] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Chinese sacbrood virus (CSBV) infects Apis cerana larvae, resulting in the inability of the larvae to pupate and their consequent death, which may pose a serious threat to entire colonies. As there is no effective medical treatment for CSBV infections, further studies are necessary. In this study, an effective treatment for CSBV is described, based on a specific immunoglobulin Y (IgY) from egg yolk against CSBV. The inactivated vaccine was produced by ultracentrifugation and formalin treatment, using CSBV purified from a natural outbreak. The specific IgY was produced by immunization of white leghorn hens with the vaccine. An enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay using purified CSBV as the coating antigen revealed that the anti-CSBV IgY titer began increasing in the egg yolk on the 14th day post-immunization, reaching a peak on day 42, and anti-CSBV IgY remained at a high level until day 91. IgY isolated from the combinations of egg yolk collected between days 42-91 was purified by PEG and ammonium sulfate precipitation. In three repeated protection experiments using A. cerana larvae inoculated with CSBV, the survival rate of larvae was more than 80%, and the titer of anti-CSBV IgY was more than 25 and 24 when the larvae were fed IgY 24 h after and before inoculation with CSBV, respectively. Therefore, 400 colonies infected with CSBV were treated by feeding sugar containing IgY solutions with an antibody titer of 25, and the cure rate was 95-100%. Three hundred susceptible colonies were protected by feeding the larvae with sugar containing IgY solutions with an antibody titer of 24, and the protection rate was 97%. The results clearly suggest that a specific IgY was obtained from hens immunized with an inactivated-CSBV vaccine; this may be a novel method for controlling CSBV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Sun
- Institute of Biological Sciences, Jinzhou Medical University, Jinzhou, China
| | - Ming Li
- Institute of Biological Sciences, Jinzhou Medical University, Jinzhou, China
| | - Dongliang Fei
- Institute of Biological Sciences, Jinzhou Medical University, Jinzhou, China
| | - Qingyun Diao
- Honeybee Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Jian Wang
- Tianjin Speerise Challenge Biotechnology Co., Ltd., Tianjin, China
| | - Liqin Li
- Tianjin Speerise Challenge Biotechnology Co., Ltd., Tianjin, China
| | - Mingxiao Ma
- Institute of Biological Sciences, Jinzhou Medical University, Jinzhou, China
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13
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Shumkova R, Neov B, Sirakova D, Georgieva A, Gadjev D, Teofanova D, Radoslavov G, Bouga M, Hristov P. Molecular detection and phylogenetic assessment of six honeybee viruses in Apis mellifera L. colonies in Bulgaria. PeerJ 2018; 6:e5077. [PMID: 29942706 PMCID: PMC6015488 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.5077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2018] [Accepted: 06/04/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Honey bee colonies suffer from various pathogens, including honey bee viruses. About 24 viruses have been reported so far. However, six of them are considered to cause severe infection which inflicts heavy losses on beekeeping. The aim of this study was to investigate incidence of six honey bee viruses: deformed wing virus (DWV), acute bee paralysis virus (ABPV), chronic bee paralysis virus (CBPV), sacbrood virus (SBV), kashmir bee virus (KBV), and black queen cell virus (BQCV) by a reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). A total of 250 adult honey bee samples were obtained from 50 colonies from eight apiaries situated in three different parts of the country (South, North and West Bulgaria). The results showed the highest prevalence of DWV followed by SBV and ABPV, and one case of BQCV. A comparison with homology sequences available in GenBank was performed by phylogenetic analysis, and phylogenetic relationships were discussed in the context of newly described genotypes in the uninvestigated South Eastern region of Europe. In conclusion, the present study has been the first to provide sequencing data and phylogenetics analyses of some honey bee viruses in Bulgaria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rositsa Shumkova
- Agricultural and Stockbreeding Experimental Station, Agricultural Academy, Smolyan, Bulgaria
| | - Boyko Neov
- Department of Animal Diversity and Resources, Institute of Biodiversity and Ecosystem Research, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Sofia, Bulgaria
| | - Daniela Sirakova
- Department of Animal Diversity and Resources, Institute of Biodiversity and Ecosystem Research, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Sofia, Bulgaria
| | - Ani Georgieva
- Department of Pathology, Institute of Experimental Morphology, Pathology and Morphology and Anthropology with Museum, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Sofia, Bulgaria
| | - Dimitar Gadjev
- Agricultural and Stockbreeding Experimental Station, Agricultural Academy, Smolyan, Bulgaria
| | - Denitsa Teofanova
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Biology, Sofia University "St. Kliment Ohridski", Sofia, Bulgaria
| | - Georgi Radoslavov
- Department of Animal Diversity and Resources, Institute of Biodiversity and Ecosystem Research, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Sofia, Bulgaria
| | - Maria Bouga
- Laboratory of Agricultural Zoology and Entomology, Agricultural University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Peter Hristov
- Department of Animal Diversity and Resources, Institute of Biodiversity and Ecosystem Research, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Sofia, Bulgaria
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14
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Sun L, Li M, Fei D, Hu Y, Ma M. Chinese sacbrood virus infection in Apis mellifera , Shandong, China, 2016. Virus Res 2017; 242:96-99. [DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2017.09.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2017] [Revised: 09/20/2017] [Accepted: 09/20/2017] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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15
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A comparison of biological characteristics of three strains of Chinese sacbrood virus in Apis cerana. Sci Rep 2016; 6:37424. [PMID: 27853294 PMCID: PMC5112594 DOI: 10.1038/srep37424] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2016] [Accepted: 10/31/2016] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
We selected and sequenced the entire genomes of three strains of Chinese sacbrood virus (CSBV): LNQY-2008 (isolated in Qingyuan, Liaoning Province), SXYL-2015 (isolated in Yulin, Shanxi Province), and JLCBS-2014 (isolated in Changbaishan, Jilin Province), by VP1 amino acid (aa) analysis. These strains are endemic in China and infect Apis cerana. Nucleotide sequences, deduced amino acid sequences, genetic backgrounds, and other molecular biological characteristics were analysed. We also examined sensitivity of these virus strains to temperature, pH, and organic solvents, as well as to other physicochemical properties. On the basis of these observations, we compared pathogenicity and tested cross-immunogenicity and protective immunity, using antisera raised against each of the three strains. Our results showed that compared with SXYL-2015, LNQY-2008 has a 10-aa deletion and 3-aa deletion (positions 282–291 and 299–301, respectively), whereas JLCBS-2014 has a 17-aa deletion (positions 284–300). However, the three strains showed no obvious differences in physicochemical properties or pathogenicity. Moreover, there was immune cross-reactivity among the antisera raised against the different strains, implying good protective effects of such antisera. The present study should significantly advance the understanding of the pathogenesis of Chinese sacbrood disease, and offers insights into comprehensive prevention and treatment of, as well as possible protection from, the disease by means of an antiserum.
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16
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Comparison of reverse-transcription loop-mediated isothermal amplification and reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction for grass carp reovirus. ACTA VET BRNO 2015. [DOI: 10.2754/avb201584030215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Grass carp reovirus (GCRV) has been assigned to a newly established Aquareovirus genus in the family of Reoviridae which leads to haemorrhagic disease and extremely high mortality rate in grass carp. In this study, comparison was made between the novel one-step reverse transcription loop-mediated isothermal amplification (RT-LAMP) and the reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) for detection of grass carp reovirus. The result indicated that RT-LAMP had × 10 higher sensitivity comparable to RT-PCR. The specificity of the two methods for GCRV detection were both developed successfully by other three aquatic viruses. In the field trial, both RT-PCR and RT-LAMP methods were applied to detect the samples from different infected organs and tissues. The result demonstrated that RT-LAMP had a high accuracy to confirm the diagnosis as well as the RT-PCR. This study showed that the RT-LAMP, compared to the RT-PCR, was simple, time-saving, convenient, but required specificity primers and possibly generated false positive product. Its products, unlike RT-PCR, could not be direcly used in further molecular research after purification. Thus RT-LAMP might be an optimal diagnostic method for rapid and preliminary diagnosis of GCRV infection in resource-limited setting situation.
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17
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Kweon CH, Yoo MS, Noh JH, Reddy KE, Yang DK, Cha SH, Kang SW. Derivation of cell-adapted Sacbrood virus (SBV) from the native Korean honeybee. Virus Res 2015; 198:15-21. [PMID: 25527463 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2014.12.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2014] [Revised: 11/14/2014] [Accepted: 12/09/2014] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Sacbrood virus (SBV), a causative agent of larval death in honeybees, is one of the most devastating diseases in bee industry throughout the world. Lately the Korean Sacbrood virus (KSBV) induced great losses in Korean honeybee (Apis cerana) colonies. However, there is no culture system available for honeybee viruses, including SBV, therefore, the research on honeybee viruses is practically limited until present. In this study, we investigated the growth and replication of SBV in cell cultures. The replication signs of KSBV after passages from mammalian cells was identified and confirmed by using combined approaches with nested, quantitative, negative-strand PCR and electron microscopy along with in vivo experiment. The results revealed that mammalian cell lines, including Vero cells could support the replication KSBV. Although there were no signs of cytopathic effect (CPE) in cells, it was for the first time demonstrated that SBV could be replicated in cells through the sequential passages linked with cell adaptation. KSBV from the present study would be a valuable source to understand the mechanism of pathogenicity of sacbrood virus in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chang-Hee Kweon
- Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency, 480 Anyang-ro, Manan-gu, Anyang-si, Gyeonggi-do, Republic of Korea
| | - Mi-Sun Yoo
- Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency, 480 Anyang-ro, Manan-gu, Anyang-si, Gyeonggi-do, Republic of Korea
| | - Jin-Hyeong Noh
- Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency, 480 Anyang-ro, Manan-gu, Anyang-si, Gyeonggi-do, Republic of Korea
| | - Kondreddy Eswar Reddy
- Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency, 480 Anyang-ro, Manan-gu, Anyang-si, Gyeonggi-do, Republic of Korea
| | - Dong-Kun Yang
- Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency, 480 Anyang-ro, Manan-gu, Anyang-si, Gyeonggi-do, Republic of Korea
| | - Sang-Ho Cha
- Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency, 480 Anyang-ro, Manan-gu, Anyang-si, Gyeonggi-do, Republic of Korea
| | - Seung-Won Kang
- Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency, 480 Anyang-ro, Manan-gu, Anyang-si, Gyeonggi-do, Republic of Korea.
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18
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Affiliation(s)
- Mingxiao Ma
- Department of Laboratory Animal Center, Liaoning Medical University, Jinzhou, 121001, China,
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19
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Mingxiao M, Jinhua L, Yingjin S, Li L, Yongfei L. TaqMan MGB probe fluorescence real-time quantitative PCR for rapid detection of Chinese Sacbrood virus. PLoS One 2013; 8:e52670. [PMID: 23408931 PMCID: PMC3568131 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0052670] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2012] [Accepted: 11/19/2012] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Sacbrood virus (SBV) is a picorna-like virus that affects honey bees (Apis mellifera) and results in the death of the larvae. Several procedures are available to detect Chinese SBV (CSBV) in clinical samples, but not to estimate the level of CSBV infection. The aim of this study was develop an assay for rapid detection and quantification of this virus. Primers and probes were designed that were specific for CSBV structural protein genes. A TaqMan minor groove binder (MGB) probe-based, fluorescence real-time quantitative PCR was established. The specificity, sensitivity and stability of the assay were assessed; specificity was high and there were no cross-reactivity with healthy larvae or other bee viruses. The assay was applied to detect CSBV in 37 clinical samples and its efficiency was compared with clinical diagnosis, electron microscopy observation, and conventional RT-PCR. The TaqMan MGB-based probe fluorescence real-time quantitative PCR for CSBV was more sensitive than other methods tested. This assay was a reliable, fast, and sensitive method that was used successfully to detect CSBV in clinical samples. The technology can provide a useful tool for rapid detection of CSBV. This study has established a useful protocol for CSBV testing, epidemiological investigation, and development of animal models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ma Mingxiao
- Department of Laboratory Animal Center, Liaoning Medical University, Jinzhou, China.
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20
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Complete Genome Sequence of Sacbrood Virus Strain SBM2, Isolated from the Honeybee Apis cerana in Vietnam. GENOME ANNOUNCEMENTS 2013; 1:genomeA00076-12. [PMID: 23405307 PMCID: PMC3569296 DOI: 10.1128/genomea.00076-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2012] [Accepted: 11/21/2012] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Here we report the complete genomic sequence of the SBM2 strain (VSBV-SBM2) of the sacbrood virus (SBV) that was isolated from the Asian honeybee (Apis cerana) in Northern Vietnam. The entire sequence excluding the 3′ poly(A) tail is 8,834 nucleotides in length and contains a single large open reading frame (ORF) of 8,580 nucleotides (position 178 to 8757), encoding 2,859 amino acids. VSBV-SBM2 shared 90 to 93% nucleotide identity and 95 to 96% amino acid homology to six complete genomes of SBV currently available in GenBank (two from China, three from Korea, and one from the United Kingdom). A hypervariable domain (amino acid [aa] position 712 to 729) and a conserved motif (position 2124 to 2143) in the precursor polypeptide of all seven SBVs are also described.
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21
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Yoo MS, Noh JH, Yoon BS, Reddy KE, Kweon CH, Jung SC, Kang SW. Reverse transcription loop-mediated isothermal amplification for sensitive and rapid detection of Korean sacbrood virus. J Virol Methods 2012; 186:147-51. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jviromet.2012.08.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2012] [Revised: 08/06/2012] [Accepted: 08/20/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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