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Li C, Lee DY. A Hydraulic Haptic Actuator for Simulation of Cardiac Catheters. IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON HAPTICS 2024; 17:461-470. [PMID: 38345951 DOI: 10.1109/toh.2024.3364689] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/15/2024]
Abstract
This article presents a haptic actuator made of silicone rubber to provide both passive and active haptic forces for catheter simulations. The haptic actuator has a torus outer shape with an ellipse-shaped inside chamber which is actuated by hydraulic pressure. Expansion of the chamber by providing positive pressure can squeeze the inside passage to resist the catheter traveling through. Further expansion can hold and push back the catheter in the axial direction to render active haptic forces. The size of the catheter passage is increased by providing negative pressure to the chamber, allowing various diameters of the actual medical catheters to be used and exchanged during the simulation. The diameter of the catheter passage can be enlarged up to 1.6 times to allow 5 to 7 Fr (1 Fr = 1/3 mm) medical catheters to pass through. Experiment results show that the proposed haptic actuator can render 0 to 2.0 N passive feedback force, and a maximum of 2.0 N active feedback force, sufficient for the cardiac catheter simulation. The haptic actuator can render the commanded force profile with 0.10 N RMS (root-mean-squares) and 10.51% L2-norm relative errors.
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Fischer N, Marzi C, Meisenbacher K, Kisilenko A, Davitashvili T, Wagner M, Mathis-Ullrich F. A sensorized modular training platform to reduce vascular damage in endovascular surgery. Int J Comput Assist Radiol Surg 2023; 18:1687-1695. [PMID: 37193935 PMCID: PMC10491519 DOI: 10.1007/s11548-023-02935-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2023] [Accepted: 04/21/2023] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE Endovascular interventions require intense practice to develop sufficient dexterity in catheter handling within the human body. Therefore, we present a modular training platform, featuring 3D-printed vessel phantoms with patient-specific anatomy and integrated piezoresistive impact force sensing of instrument interaction at clinically relevant locations for feedback-based skill training to detect and reduce damage to the delicate vascular wall. METHODS The platform was fabricated and then evaluated in a user study by medical ([Formula: see text]) and non-medical ([Formula: see text]) users. The users had to navigate a set of guidewire and catheter through a parkour of 3 modules including an aneurismatic abdominal aorta, while impact force and completion time were recorded. Eventually, a questionnaire was conducted. RESULTS The platform allowed to perform more than 100 runs in which it proved capable to distinguish between users of different experience levels. Medical experts in the fields of vascular and visceral surgery had a strong performance assessment on the platform. It could be shown, that medical students could improve runtime and impact over 5 runs. The platform was well received and rated as promising for medical education despite the experience of higher friction compared to real human vessels. CONCLUSION We investigated an authentic patient-specific training platform with integrated sensor-based feedback functionality for individual skill training in endovascular surgery. The presented method for phantom manufacturing is easily applicable to arbitrary patient-individual imaging data. Further work shall address the implementation of smaller vessel branches, as well as real-time feedback and camera imaging for further improved training experience.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nikola Fischer
- Health Robotics and Automation, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Institute for Anthropomatics and Robotics, 76131, Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Christian Marzi
- Health Robotics and Automation, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Institute for Anthropomatics and Robotics, 76131, Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Katrin Meisenbacher
- Department of Vascular and Endovascular Surgery, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Anna Kisilenko
- Department for General, Visceral and Transplantation Surgery, Heidelberg University Hospital, 69120, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Tornike Davitashvili
- Department for General, Visceral and Transplantation Surgery, Heidelberg University Hospital, 69120, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Martin Wagner
- Department for General, Visceral and Transplantation Surgery, Heidelberg University Hospital, 69120, Heidelberg, Germany
- Center for the Tactile Internet with Human in the Loop (CeTI), Technical University Dresden, 01062, Dresden, Germany
| | - Franziska Mathis-Ullrich
- Health Robotics and Automation, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Institute for Anthropomatics and Robotics, 76131, Karlsruhe, Germany.
- Department of Artificial Intelligence in Biomedical Engineering (AIBE), Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nürnberg, 91052, Erlangen, Germany.
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Crinnion W, Jackson B, Sood A, Lynch J, Bergeles C, Liu H, Rhode K, Mendes Pereira V, Booth TC. Robotics in neurointerventional surgery: a systematic review of the literature. J Neurointerv Surg 2022; 14:539-545. [PMID: 34799439 PMCID: PMC9120401 DOI: 10.1136/neurintsurg-2021-018096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2021] [Accepted: 10/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Robotically performed neurointerventional surgery has the potential to reduce occupational hazards to staff, perform intervention with greater precision, and could be a viable solution for teleoperated neurointerventional procedures. OBJECTIVE To determine the indication, robotic systems used, efficacy, safety, and the degree of manual assistance required for robotically performed neurointervention. METHODS We conducted a systematic review of the literature up to, and including, articles published on April 12, 2021. Medline, PubMed, Embase, and Cochrane register databases were searched using medical subject heading terms to identify reports of robotically performed neurointervention, including diagnostic cerebral angiography and carotid artery intervention. RESULTS A total of 8 articles treating 81 patients were included. Only one case report used a robotic system for intracranial intervention, the remaining indications being cerebral angiography and carotid artery intervention. Only one study performed a comparison of robotic and manual procedures. Across all studies, the technical success rate was 96% and the clinical success rate was 100%. All cases required a degree of manual assistance. No studies had clearly defined patient selection criteria, reference standards, or index tests, preventing meaningful statistical analysis. CONCLUSIONS Given the clinical success, it is plausible that robotically performed neurointerventional procedures will eventually benefit patients and reduce occupational hazards for staff; however, there is no high-level efficacy and safety evidence to support this assertion. Limitations of current robotic systems and the challenges that must be overcome to realize the potential for remote teleoperated neurointervention require further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- William Crinnion
- School of Biomedical Engineering and Imaging Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
- NIHR Biomedical Research Centre, Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust and King's College London, London, UK
| | - Ben Jackson
- School of Biomedical Engineering and Imaging Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Avnish Sood
- School of Biomedical Engineering and Imaging Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Jeremy Lynch
- Department of Neuroradiology, King's College Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Christos Bergeles
- School of Biomedical Engineering and Imaging Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Hongbin Liu
- School of Biomedical Engineering and Imaging Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Kawal Rhode
- School of Biomedical Engineering and Imaging Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Vitor Mendes Pereira
- Division of Neuroradiology, Department of Medical Imaging and Division of Neurosurgery, Department of Surgery, University Health Network - Toronto Western Hospital, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Thomas C Booth
- School of Biomedical Engineering and Imaging Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
- Department of Neuroradiology, King's College Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
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A validation study of intraoperative performance metrics for training novice cardiac resynchronization therapy implanters. Int J Cardiol 2020; 307:48-54. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijcard.2020.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2020] [Revised: 01/27/2020] [Accepted: 02/02/2020] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
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Awan O, Dey C, Salts H, Brian J, Fotos J, Royston E, Braileanu M, Ghobadi E, Powell J, Chung C, Auffermann W. Making Learning Fun: Gaming in Radiology Education. Acad Radiol 2019; 26:1127-1136. [PMID: 31005406 DOI: 10.1016/j.acra.2019.02.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2018] [Revised: 02/21/2019] [Accepted: 02/26/2019] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
With continued technologic advances, it is not surprising that gaming techniques are increasingly being used in radiology residency programs. This comprehensive review on gaming in radiology education offers insight into the importance of gaming, types of games and principles utilized in gaming, as well as applications that are inherent in artificial intelligence and continued medical education. The advantages and disadvantages of gaming will be considered, as well as barriers to successful adoption of gaming.
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Affiliation(s)
- Omer Awan
- University of Maryland School of Medicine, 655 W. Baltimore Street, Baltimore, MD, 21201.
| | - Courtney Dey
- Eastern Virginia Medical School, Norfolk, Virginia.
| | - Hayden Salts
- Eastern Virginia Medical School, Norfolk, Virginia.
| | - James Brian
- Penn State Hershey Medical Center, Hershey, Pennsylvania.
| | - Joseph Fotos
- Penn State Hershey Medical Center, Hershey, Pennsylvania.
| | | | | | | | - Jason Powell
- Wake Forest Baptist Health, Winston-Salem, North Carolina.
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Sadasivan C, Lieber BB, Woo HH. Physical Simulators and Replicators in Endovascular Neurosurgery Training. COMPREHENSIVE HEALTHCARE SIMULATION: NEUROSURGERY 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-75583-0_3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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Design of a cost-effective, hemodynamically adjustable model for resuscitative endovascular balloon occlusion of the aorta (REBOA) simulation. J Trauma Acute Care Surg 2017; 81:606-11. [PMID: 27270855 DOI: 10.1097/ta.0000000000001153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Resuscitative endovascular balloon occlusion of the aorta (REBOA) is an adjunct technique for salvaging patients with noncompressible torso hemorrhage. Current REBOA training paradigms require large animals, virtual reality simulators, or human cadavers for acquisition of skills. These training strategies are expensive and resource intensive, which may prevent widespread dissemination of REBOA. We have developed a low-cost, near-physiologic, pulsatile REBOA simulator by connecting an anatomic vascular circuit constructed out of latex and polyvinyl chloride tubing to a commercially available pump. This pulsatile simulator is capable of generating cardiac outputs ranging from 1.7 to 6.8 L/min with corresponding arterial blood pressures of 54 to 226/14 to 121 mmHg. The simulator accommodates a 12 French introducer sheath and a CODA balloon catheter. Upon balloon inflation, the arterial waveform distal to the occlusion flattens, distal pulsation within the simulator is lost, and systolic blood pressures proximal to the balloon catheter increase by up to 62 mmHg. Further development and validation of this simulator will allow for refinement, reduction, and replacement of large animal models, costly virtual reality simulators, and perfused cadavers for training purposes. This will ultimately facilitate the low-cost, high-fidelity REBOA simulation needed for the widespread dissemination of this life-saving technique.
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Tabernero Rico RD, Juanes Méndez JA, Prats Galino A. New Generation of Three-Dimensional Tools to Learn Anatomy. J Med Syst 2017; 41:88. [PMID: 28405946 DOI: 10.1007/s10916-017-0725-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2017] [Accepted: 03/10/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
We present a new generation tool based of interactive 3D models. This models are based on the radiological two-dimensional images by computed tomography imaging. Our article focuses on the anatomical region of the skull base. These new three-dimensional models offer a wide field of application in the learning, as they offer multiple visualization tools (rotation, scrolling, zoom…). In this way, understanding of the anatomical region is facilitated. A feature to be dismissed is that a professional workstation is not required to work with three-dimensional models, since a personal computer can be viewed and interacted with the models. Educational and clinical applications are also discussed.
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Aggarwal S, Choudhury E, Ladha S, Kapoor PM, Kiran U. Simulation in cardiac catheterization laboratory: Need of the hour to improve the clinical skills. Ann Card Anaesth 2017; 19:521-6. [PMID: 27397459 PMCID: PMC4971983 DOI: 10.4103/0971-9784.185548] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Simulation is an effective teaching tool to decrease the learning curve for novices without compromising patient safety. Simulation helps interventionalist in mentally translating a two dimentional, black and white image into a usable three dimentional model. It also bridges the gap in training diverse team members on new procedures and products. All simulators have collision detection, i.e., virtual contact forces generated from collision which updates haptic output with new calculations.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Erin Choudhury
- Department of Cardiac Anaesthesia, CTC, AIIMS, New Delhi, India
| | - Suruchi Ladha
- Department of Cardiac Anaesthesia, CTC, AIIMS, New Delhi, India
| | | | - Usha Kiran
- Department of Cardiac Anaesthesia, CTC, AIIMS, New Delhi, India
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Abstract
PURPOSE To test and validate magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) sequences for peripheral artery lesion characterization and relate the MRI characteristics to the amount of force required for a guidewire to puncture peripheral chronic total occlusions (CTOs) as a surrogate for immediate failure of endovascular therapy. METHODS Diseased superficial femoral, popliteal, and tibial artery segments containing 55 atherosclerotic lesions were excised from the amputated limbs of 7 patients with critical limb ischemia. The lesions were imaged at high resolution (75 μm3 voxels) with T2-weighted (T2W) and ultrashort echo time (UTE) sequences on a 7-T MR scanner. The MR images (n=15) were validated with micro-computed tomography and histology. CTOs (n=40) were classified by their MR signal characteristics as "soft" (signals indicating fat, thrombus, microchannels, or loose fibrous tissue), "hard" (collagen and/or speckled calcium signals), or "calcified" (calcified nodule signals). A 2-kg load cell advanced the back end of a 0.035-inch stiff guidewire at a fixed displacement rate (0.05 mm/s) through the CTOs, and the forces required to cross each lesion were measured. RESULTS T2W images showed fat as hyperintense and hardened tissue as hypointense. Calcium and thrombus appeared as a signal void in conventional MRI sequences but were easily identified in UTE images (thrombus was hyperintense and calcium hypointense). MRI accurately differentiated "hard," "soft," and "calcified" CTOs based on associated guidewire puncture force. The guidewire could not enter "calcified" CTOs (n=6) at all. "Hard" CTOs (n=9) required a significantly higher (p<0.001) puncture force of 1.71±0.51 N vs 0.43±0.36 N for "soft" CTOs (n=25). CONCLUSION MRI characteristics of PAD lesions correlate with guidewire puncture forces, an important aspect of crossability. Future work will determine if clinical MR scanners can be used to predict success in peripheral vascular interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Trisha Roy
- 1 Schulich Heart Program and the Sunnybrook Research Institute, Sunnybrook Health Sciences Centre, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.,2 Division of Vascular Surgery, Department of Surgery, University of Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Garry Liu
- 1 Schulich Heart Program and the Sunnybrook Research Institute, Sunnybrook Health Sciences Centre, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.,3 Department of Medical Biophysics, University of Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Noor Shaikh
- 4 Division of Engineering Science, University of Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Andrew D Dueck
- 1 Schulich Heart Program and the Sunnybrook Research Institute, Sunnybrook Health Sciences Centre, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.,2 Division of Vascular Surgery, Department of Surgery, University of Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Graham A Wright
- 1 Schulich Heart Program and the Sunnybrook Research Institute, Sunnybrook Health Sciences Centre, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.,3 Department of Medical Biophysics, University of Toronto, Ontario, Canada
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Endovascular aneurysm repair simulation can lead to decreased fluoroscopy time and accurately delineate the proximal seal zone. J Vasc Surg 2016; 64:251-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jvs.2016.01.050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2015] [Accepted: 01/28/2016] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
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Kendrick DE, Gosling AF, Nagavalli A, Kashyap VS, Wang JC. Endovascular Simulation Leads to Efficiency and Competence in Thoracic Endovascular Aortic Repair Procedures. JOURNAL OF SURGICAL EDUCATION 2015; 72:1158-1164. [PMID: 26145182 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsurg.2015.05.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2015] [Revised: 04/15/2015] [Accepted: 05/16/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Endovascular interventions such as thoracic endovascular aortic repair (TEVAR) have largely replaced invasive open procedures, and have been demonstrated to be effective in treating patients. Our study used endovascular simulation to assess the effect of TEVAR rehearsal on surgical trainees at different levels in training. DESIGN Participants were oriented on an endovascular simulator and subsequently a simulated TEVAR was performed during 4 separate sessions over a 1-month period. Metrics included total procedure/fluoroscopy time and volume of contrast used. Likert scale qualitative analysis evaluated participant׳s skills involving major procedural steps. Analysis of data across cohorts included 1-way analysis of variance, Kruskal-Wallis, and paired t-tests. SETTING All data were collected at University Hospitals-Case Medical Center, Cleveland, OH. PARTICIPANTS In all, 12 trainees in 3 cohorts (student, surgery resident postgraduate year [PGY] 1-3, surgery resident/fellow PGY 4-7, n = 4 each) were recruited. RESULTS All trainees reduced total procedure time (mean = 537 ± 148 vs 269 ± 66s, first session vs fourth, P < 0.05, CI: 195-341) and fluoroscopy time (mean = 201 ± 74 vs 110 ± 37s, P < 0.05, CI: 51-132) with TEVAR case progression. The student cohort decreased procedure time from 551 ± 84s to 313 ± 65s (P < 0.05, CI: 189-287) whereas PGYs 1 to 3 decreased procedure time from 591 ± 149s to 264 ± 29s (P < 0.05, CI: 113-541). Use of contrast decreased over time, but the difference was not significant. Participants acquired proficiency after a few runs in most steps of the procedure. The average qualitative score for all groups combined improved significantly (P < 0.03). PGY 4 to 7 trainees had higher technical scores but this was not statistically significant. The initial gap in junior vs senior trainee performance narrowed after a few practice sessions in all aspects evaluated. CONCLUSIONS TEVAR rehearsal on an endovascular simulator can reduce overall procedure and fluoroscopy time, independent of trainee skill level or experience, as well as improve subjective measures of technical success. Further studies are needed to compare simulator performance to outcomes in live cases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel E Kendrick
- Division of Vascular Surgery and Endovascular Therapy, University Hospitals-Case Medical Center, Cleveland, Ohio.
| | - Andre F Gosling
- Division of Vascular Surgery and Endovascular Therapy, University Hospitals-Case Medical Center, Cleveland, Ohio
| | - Anil Nagavalli
- Division of Vascular Surgery and Endovascular Therapy, University Hospitals-Case Medical Center, Cleveland, Ohio
| | - Vikram S Kashyap
- Division of Vascular Surgery and Endovascular Therapy, University Hospitals-Case Medical Center, Cleveland, Ohio
| | - John C Wang
- Division of Vascular Surgery and Endovascular Therapy, University Hospitals-Case Medical Center, Cleveland, Ohio
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Guo J, Guo S, Tamiya T, Hirata H, Ishihara H. Design and performance evaluation of a master controller for endovascular catheterization. Int J Comput Assist Radiol Surg 2015; 11:119-31. [PMID: 26067289 DOI: 10.1007/s11548-015-1211-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2015] [Accepted: 04/07/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE It is difficult to manipulate a flexible catheter to target a position within a patient's complicated and delicate vessels. However, few researchers focused on the controller designs with much consideration of the natural catheter manipulation skills obtained from manual catheterization. Also, the existing catheter motion measurement methods probably lead to the difficulties in designing the force feedback device. Additionally, the commercially available systems are too expensive which makes them cost prohibitive to most hospitals. This paper presents a simple and cost-effective master controller for endovascular catheterization that can allow the interventionalists to apply the conventional pull, push and twist of the catheter used in current practice. METHODS A catheter-sensing unit (used to measure the motion of the catheter) and a force feedback unit (used to provide a sense of resistance force) are both presented. A camera was used to allow a contactless measurement avoiding additional friction, and the force feedback in the axial direction was provided by the magnetic force generated between the permanent magnets and the powered coil. RESULTS Performance evaluation of the controller was evaluated by first conducting comparison experiments to quantify the accuracy of the catheter-sensing unit, and then conducting several experiments to evaluate the force feedback unit. From the experimental results, the minimum and the maximum errors of translational displacement were 0.003 mm (0.01 %) and 0.425 mm (1.06 %), respectively. The average error was 0.113 mm (0.28 %). In terms of rotational angles, the minimum and the maximum errors were 0.39°(0.33 %) and 7.2°(6 %), respectively. The average error was 3.61°(3.01 %). The force resolution was approximately 25 mN and a maximum current of 3A generated an approximately 1.5 N force. CONCLUSION Based on analysis of requirements and state-of-the-art computer-assisted and robot-assisted training systems for endovascular catheterization, a new master controller with force feedback interface was proposed to maintain the natural endovascular catheterization skills of the interventionalists.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jin Guo
- Graduate School of Engineering, Kagawa University, Takamatsu, Kagawa, Japan.
| | - Shuxiang Guo
- Intelligent Mechanical Systems Engineering Department, Kagawa University, Takamatsu, Kagawa, Japan. .,School of Life Science, Beijing Institute of Technology, Haidian District, Beijing, China.
| | - Takashi Tamiya
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, Kagawa University, Takamatsu, Kagawa, Japan
| | - Hideyuki Hirata
- Intelligent Mechanical Systems Engineering Department, Kagawa University, Takamatsu, Kagawa, Japan
| | - Hidenori Ishihara
- Intelligent Mechanical Systems Engineering Department, Kagawa University, Takamatsu, Kagawa, Japan
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