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Guo M, Liu R, Zhang F, Qu J, Yang Y, Li X. A new perspective on liver diseases: Focusing on the mitochondria-associated endoplasmic reticulum membranes. Pharmacol Res 2024; 208:107409. [PMID: 39284429 DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2024.107409] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2024] [Revised: 08/29/2024] [Accepted: 09/10/2024] [Indexed: 09/19/2024]
Abstract
The pathogenesis of liver diseases is multifaceted and intricate, posing a persistent global public health challenge with limited therapeutic options. Therefore, further research into liver diseases is imperative for better comprehension and advancement in treatment strategies. Numerous studies have confirmed the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and mitochondria as key organelles driving liver diseases. Notably, the mitochondrial-associated ER membranes (MAMs) establish a physical and functional connection between the ER and mitochondria, highlighting the importance of inter-organelle communication in maintaining their functional homeostasis. This review delves into the intricate architecture and regulative mechanism of the integrated MAM that facilitate the physiological transfer of signals and substances between organelles. Additionally, we also provide a detailed overview regarding the varied pathogenic roles of malfunctioning MAM in liver diseases, focusing on its involvement in the progression of ER stress and mitochondrial dysfunction, the regulation of mitochondrial dynamics and Ca2+ transfer, as well as the disruption of lipid and glucose homeostasis. Furthermore, the current challenges and prospects associated with MAM in liver disease research are thoroughly discussed. In conclusion, elucidating the specific structure and function of MAM in different liver diseases may pave the way for novel therapeutic strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mengyu Guo
- School of Life Sciences, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, 100029, China
| | - Runping Liu
- School of Chinese Materia Medica, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, 100029, China
| | - Fukun Zhang
- School of Life Sciences, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, 100029, China
| | - Jiaorong Qu
- School of Life Sciences, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, 100029, China
| | - Yun Yang
- School of Life Sciences, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, 100029, China
| | - Xiaojiaoyang Li
- School of Life Sciences, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, 100029, China.
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2
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Dashti Z, Yousefi Z, Kiani P, Taghizadeh M, Maleki MH, Borji M, Vakili O, Shafiee SM. Autophagy and the unfolded protein response shape the non-alcoholic fatty liver landscape: decoding the labyrinth. Metabolism 2024; 154:155811. [PMID: 38309690 DOI: 10.1016/j.metabol.2024.155811] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2023] [Revised: 01/23/2024] [Accepted: 01/28/2024] [Indexed: 02/05/2024]
Abstract
The incidence of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is on the rise, mirroring a global surge in diabetes and metabolic syndrome, as its major leading causes. NAFLD represents a spectrum of liver disorders, ranging from nonalcoholic fatty liver (NAFL) to nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), which can potentially progress to cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Mechanistically, we know the unfolded protein response (UPR) as a protective cellular mechanism, being triggered under circumstances of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress. The hepatic UPR is turned on in a broad spectrum of liver diseases, including NAFLD. Recent data also defines molecular mechanisms that may underlie the existing correlation between UPR activation and NAFLD. More interestingly, subsequent studies have demonstrated an additional mechanism, i.e. autophagy, to be involved in hepatic steatosis, and thus NAFLD pathogenesis, principally by regulating the insulin sensitivity, hepatocellular injury, innate immunity, fibrosis, and carcinogenesis. All these findings suggest possible mechanistic roles for autophagy in the progression of NAFLD and its complications. Both UPR and autophagy are dynamic and interconnected fluxes that act as protective responses to minimize the harmful effects of hepatic lipid accumulation, as well as the ER stress during NAFLD. The functions of UPR and autophagy in the liver, together with findings of decreased hepatic autophagy in correlation with conditions that predispose to NAFLD, such as obesity and aging, suggest that autophagy and UPR, alone or combined, may be novel therapeutic targets against the disease. In this review, we discuss the current evidence on the interplay between autophagy and the UPR in connection to the NAFLD pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zahra Dashti
- Department of Genetics, Faculty of Medicine, Shahid Sadoughi University of Medical Sciences, Yazd, Iran
| | - Zeynab Yousefi
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Pouria Kiani
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran
| | - Motahareh Taghizadeh
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, School of Medicine, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Mohammad Hasan Maleki
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, School of Medicine, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Mohammad Borji
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, School of Medicine, Zanjan University of Medical Sciences, Zanjan, Iran
| | - Omid Vakili
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran; Autophagy Research Center, Department of Clinical Biochemistry, School of Medicine, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran.
| | - Sayed Mohammad Shafiee
- Autophagy Research Center, Department of Clinical Biochemistry, School of Medicine, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran.
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Kapuy O. Mechanism of Decision Making between Autophagy and Apoptosis Induction upon Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:4368. [PMID: 38673953 PMCID: PMC11050573 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25084368] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2024] [Revised: 04/10/2024] [Accepted: 04/15/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Dynamic regulation of the cellular proteome is mainly controlled in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Accumulation of misfolded proteins due to ER stress leads to the activation of unfolded protein response (UPR). The primary role of UPR is to reduce the bulk of damages and try to drive back the system to the former or a new homeostatic state by autophagy, while an excessive level of stress results in apoptosis. It has already been proven that the proper order and characteristic features of both surviving and self-killing mechanisms are controlled by negative and positive feedback loops, respectively. The new results suggest that these feedback loops are found not only within but also between branches of the UPR, fine-tuning the response to ER stress. In this review, we summarize the recent knowledge of the dynamical characteristic of endoplasmic reticulum stress response mechanism by using both theoretical and molecular biological techniques. In addition, this review pays special attention to describing the mechanism of action of the dynamical features of the feedback loops controlling cellular life-and-death decision upon ER stress. Since ER stress appears in diseases that are common worldwide, a more detailed understanding of the behaviour of the stress response is of medical importance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Orsolya Kapuy
- Department of Molecular Biology, Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Semmelweis University, H-1085 Budapest, Hungary
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Sushma, Mishra S, Kanchan S, Divakar A, Jha G, Sharma D, Kapoor R, Kumar Rath S. Alcohol induces ER stress and apoptosis by inducing oxidative stress and disruption of calcium homeostasis in glial cells. Food Chem Toxicol 2023; 182:114192. [PMID: 37980976 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2023.114192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2023] [Revised: 11/08/2023] [Accepted: 11/11/2023] [Indexed: 11/21/2023]
Abstract
Alcohol has teratogenic effects that can cause developmental abnormalities and alter anatomical and functional characteristics of the developed brain and other organs. Glial cells play a crucial role in alcohol metabolism and protect neurons from toxic effects of alcohol. However, chronic alcohol exposure can lead to uncontrollable levels of reactive oxygen species, resulting in the death of glial cells and exposing neuronal cells to the toxic effects of alcohol. The exact molecular mechanism of alcohol-induced glial cell death has not been fully explored. This study reported that different concentrations of alcohol induce different expressions of ER stress markers in glial cells, focusing on the role of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress. Alcohol-induced concentration-dependent toxicity in both cells also induced oxidative stress, leading to mitochondrial damage. The expression of p53 and apoptotic proteins was significantly up-regulated after alcohol exposure, while Bcl2 (anti-apoptotic) was down-regulated. The signalling pathway for ER stress was activated and up-regulated marker proteins in a concentration-dependent manner. Cells pre-treated with BAPTA-AM and NAC showed significant resistance against alcohol assault compared to other cells. These in vitro findings will prove valuable for defining the mechanism by which alcohol modulates oxidative stress, mitochondrial and ER damage leading to glial cell death.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sushma
- Genotoxicity Laboratory, Division of Toxicology & Experimental Medicine, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow, 226001, India
| | - Sakshi Mishra
- Genotoxicity Laboratory, Division of Toxicology & Experimental Medicine, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow, 226001, India
| | - Sonam Kanchan
- Genotoxicity Laboratory, Division of Toxicology & Experimental Medicine, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow, 226001, India
| | - Aman Divakar
- Genotoxicity Laboratory, Division of Toxicology & Experimental Medicine, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow, 226001, India
| | - Gaurav Jha
- Genotoxicity Laboratory, Division of Toxicology & Experimental Medicine, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow, 226001, India
| | - Divyansh Sharma
- Genotoxicity Laboratory, Division of Toxicology & Experimental Medicine, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow, 226001, India
| | - Radhika Kapoor
- Genotoxicity Laboratory, Division of Toxicology & Experimental Medicine, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow, 226001, India
| | - Srikanta Kumar Rath
- Genotoxicity Laboratory, Division of Toxicology & Experimental Medicine, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow, 226001, India.
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Chen L, Bi M, Zhang Z, Du X, Chen X, Jiao Q, Jiang H. The functions of IRE1α in neurodegenerative diseases: Beyond ER stress. Ageing Res Rev 2022; 82:101774. [PMID: 36332756 DOI: 10.1016/j.arr.2022.101774] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2022] [Revised: 10/19/2022] [Accepted: 10/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Inositol-requiring enzyme 1 α (IRE1α) is a type I transmembrane protein that resides in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). IRE1α, which is the primary sensor of ER stress, has been proven to maintain intracellular protein homeostasis by activating X-box binding protein 1 (XBP1). Further studies have revealed novel physiological functions of the IRE1α, such as its roles in mRNA and protein degradation, inflammation, immunity, cell proliferation and cell death. Therefore, the function of IRE1α is not limited to its role in ER stress; IRE1α is also important for regulating other processes related to cellular physiology. Furthermore, IRE1α plays a key role in neurodegenerative diseases that are caused by the phosphorylation of Tau protein, the accumulation of α-synuclein (α-syn) and the toxic effects of mutant Huntingtin (mHtt). Therefore, targeting IRE1α is a valuable approach for treating neurodegenerative diseases and regulating cell functions. This review discusses the role of IRE1α in different cellular processes, and emphasizes the importance of IRE1α in neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ling Chen
- Department of Physiology, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathogenesis and Prevention of Neurological Disorders and State Key Disciplines: Physiology, School of Basic Medicine, Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
| | - Mingxia Bi
- Department of Physiology, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathogenesis and Prevention of Neurological Disorders and State Key Disciplines: Physiology, School of Basic Medicine, Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
| | - Zhen Zhang
- Department of Physiology, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathogenesis and Prevention of Neurological Disorders and State Key Disciplines: Physiology, School of Basic Medicine, Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
| | - Xixun Du
- Department of Physiology, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathogenesis and Prevention of Neurological Disorders and State Key Disciplines: Physiology, School of Basic Medicine, Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
| | - Xi Chen
- Department of Physiology, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathogenesis and Prevention of Neurological Disorders and State Key Disciplines: Physiology, School of Basic Medicine, Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
| | - Qian Jiao
- Department of Physiology, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathogenesis and Prevention of Neurological Disorders and State Key Disciplines: Physiology, School of Basic Medicine, Qingdao University, Qingdao, China.
| | - Hong Jiang
- Department of Physiology, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathogenesis and Prevention of Neurological Disorders and State Key Disciplines: Physiology, School of Basic Medicine, Qingdao University, Qingdao, China; University of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences, Qingdao, China.
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Ma J, Huo H, Zhang H, Wang L, Meng Y, Jin F, Wang X, Zhao Y, Zhao Y, Tu P, Song Y, Zheng J, Li J. 2-(2-phenylethyl)chromone-enriched extract of the resinous heartwood of Chinese agarwood (Aquilaria sinensis) protects against taurocholic acid-induced gastric epithelial cells apoptosis through Perk/eIF2α/CHOP pathway. PHYTOMEDICINE : INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PHYTOTHERAPY AND PHYTOPHARMACOLOGY 2022; 98:153935. [PMID: 35104763 DOI: 10.1016/j.phymed.2022.153935] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2021] [Revised: 01/07/2022] [Accepted: 01/08/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Injury of gastric epithelial cells is one of the most important pathological features of bile reflux gastritis. Chinese agarwood (the resinous heartwood of Aquilaria sinensis) has been used to treat stomach problems for thousands of years in China. However, the pathological mechanism of epithelial cells death induced by bile acids and the therapeutic target of Chinese agarwood for improving bile reflux gastritis have not yet been fully clarified. PURPOSE This study aimed to investigate the pro-apoptotic effect of taurocholic acid (TCA) by regulating the ER stress pathway. Moreover, the role of Chinese agarwood 2-(2-phenylethyl)chromone-enriched extract (CPE) to inhibit gastric epithelial cell death induced by TCA was also been demonstrated. METHODS We adopted human gastric epithelial GES-1 cells to explore the mechanism of TCA-induced cell death in vitro. Then the cell viability, apoptosis rate, and protein expressions were evaluated to explore the protective effects of CPE on GES-1 cells by TCA injury. The therapeutic effect of CPE on bile reflux gastritis was further confirmed by the bile reflux mice in vivo. RESULTS Our results demonstrated that TCA activated GES-1 cell apoptosis by increased cleavage of caspase-7 and PARP. Further experiments showed that TCA up-regulated endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, subsequently triggered the apoptosis of the epithelial cells. Our research explored that CPE is the main effective fraction in Chinese agarwood by preventing the TCA-induced gastric epithelial cell injury. CPE effectively suppressed GES-1 cell apoptosis activated by TCA through inhibiting Perk/eIF2α/CHOP pathway. The anti-apoptotic effect of CPE on gastric mucosa had also been confirmed in vivo. Moreover, the main effective components in CPE corresponding to the protection of epithelial cells were also been identified. CONCLUSION Our finding suggested that CPE recovered the TCA-induced epithelial cell apoptosis by mediating the activation of ER stress, which explored potential medicine to treat bile reflux gastritis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiale Ma
- School of Chinese Materia Medica, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Huixia Huo
- School of Chinese Materia Medica, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Hang Zhang
- School of Chinese Materia Medica, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Lingxiao Wang
- School of Chinese Materia Medica, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Yingxin Meng
- School of Chinese Materia Medica, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Fengyu Jin
- School of Chinese Materia Medica, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Xinyu Wang
- School of Chinese Materia Medica, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Yimu Zhao
- School of Chinese Materia Medica, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Yunfang Zhao
- School of Chinese Materia Medica, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Pengfei Tu
- School of Chinese Materia Medica, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Yuelin Song
- School of Chinese Materia Medica, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing 100029, China.
| | - Jiao Zheng
- School of Chinese Materia Medica, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing 100029, China.
| | - Jun Li
- School of Chinese Materia Medica, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing 100029, China.
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Qiao D, Zhang Z, Zhang Y, Chen Q, Chen Y, Tang Y, Sun X, Tang Z, Dai Y. Regulation of Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress-Autophagy: A Potential Therapeutic Target for Ulcerative Colitis. Front Pharmacol 2021; 12:697360. [PMID: 34588980 PMCID: PMC8473789 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2021.697360] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2021] [Accepted: 09/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Ulcerative colitis (UC) is a chronic nonspecific inflammation that mainly affects the mucosa and submucosa of the rectum and colon. Numerous studies have shown that endoplasmic reticulum stress (ERS)-induced autophagy plays a vital role in the pathogenesis of UC. ERS is the imbalance of internal balance caused by misfolded or unfolded proteins accumulated in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER).Excessive ERS triggers the unfolded protein response (UPR), an increase in inositol-requiring enzyme 1, and a Ca2+ overload, which activates the autophagy pathway. Autophagy is an evolutionarily conserved method of cellular self-degradation. Dysregulated autophagy causes inflammation, disruption of the intestinal barrier, and imbalance of intestinal homeostasis, therefore increasing the risk of colonic diseases. This review summarizes the pathogenesis of ERS, UPR, and ERS-related autophagy in UC, providing potential new targets and more effective treatment options for UC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dan Qiao
- Department of Gastroenterology, Shanghai Traditional Chinese Medicine-Integrated Hospital, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Ziwei Zhang
- Institute of Digestive Diseases, LongHua Hospital, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Yali Zhang
- Institute of Digestive Diseases, LongHua Hospital, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Qian Chen
- Institute of Digestive Diseases, LongHua Hospital, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Yujun Chen
- Institute of Digestive Diseases, LongHua Hospital, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Yingjue Tang
- Institute of Digestive Diseases, LongHua Hospital, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Xiong Sun
- Department of Gastroenterology, Shanghai PuTuo District People's Hospital Affiliated to Tongji University, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Zhipeng Tang
- Institute of Digestive Diseases, LongHua Hospital, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Yancheng Dai
- Department of Gastroenterology, Shanghai Traditional Chinese Medicine-Integrated Hospital, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China
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Sazonova EV, Kopeina GS, Imyanitov EN, Zhivotovsky B. Platinum drugs and taxanes: can we overcome resistance? Cell Death Discov 2021; 7:155. [PMID: 34226520 PMCID: PMC8257727 DOI: 10.1038/s41420-021-00554-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2021] [Revised: 06/05/2021] [Accepted: 06/12/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Cancer therapy is aimed at the elimination of tumor cells and acts via the cessation of cell proliferation and induction of cell death. Many research publications discussing the mechanisms of anticancer drugs use the terms "cell death" and "apoptosis" interchangeably, given that apoptotic pathways are the most common components of the action of targeted and cytotoxic compounds. However, there is sound evidence suggesting that other mechanisms of drug-induced cell death, such as necroptosis, ferroptosis, autophagy, etc. may significantly contribute to the fate of cancer cells. Molecular cross-talks between apoptotic and nonapoptotic death pathways underlie the successes and the failures of therapeutic interventions. Here we discuss the nuances of the antitumor action of two groups of the widely used anticancer drugs, i.e., platinum salts and taxane derivatives. The available data suggest that intelligent interference with the choice of cell death pathways may open novel opportunities for cancer treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena V Sazonova
- Faculty of Medicine, MV Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, 119991, Russia
| | - Gelina S Kopeina
- Faculty of Medicine, MV Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, 119991, Russia
| | - Evgeny N Imyanitov
- Department of Tumor Growth Biology, N.N. Petrov Institute of Oncology, St.-Petersburg, 197758, Russia.
- Department of Medical Genetics, St.-Petersburg Pediatric Medical University, St.-Petersburg, 194100, Russia.
- Department of Oncology, I.I. Mechnikov North-Western Medical University, St.-Petersburg, 195067, Russia.
| | - Boris Zhivotovsky
- Faculty of Medicine, MV Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, 119991, Russia.
- Division of Toxicology, Institute of Environmental Medicine, Karolinska Institute, Box 210, 17177, Stockholm, Sweden.
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Shen HH, Zhang T, Yang HL, Lai ZZ, Zhou WJ, Mei J, Shi JW, Zhu R, Xu FY, Li DJ, Ye JF, Li MQ. Ovarian hormones-autophagy-immunity axis in menstruation and endometriosis. Am J Cancer Res 2021; 11:3512-3526. [PMID: 33537101 PMCID: PMC7847674 DOI: 10.7150/thno.55241] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2020] [Accepted: 01/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Menstruation occurs in few species and involves a cyclic process of proliferation, breakdown and regeneration under the control of ovarian hormones. Knowledge of normal endometrial physiology, as it pertains to the regulation of menstruation, is essential to understand disorders of menstruation. Accumulating evidence indicates that autophagy in the endometrium, under the regulation of ovarian hormones, can result in the infiltration of immune cells, which plays an indispensable role in the endometrium shedding, tissue repair and prevention of infections during menstruation. In addition, abnormal autophagy levels, together with resulting dysregulated immune system function, are associated with the pathogenesis and progression of endometriosis. Considering its potential value of autophagy as a target for the treatment of menstrual-related and endometrium-related disorders, we review the activity and function of autophagy during menstrual cycles. The role of the estrogen/progesterone-autophagy-immunity axis in endometriosis are also discussed.
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