The FTO m6A demethylase inhibits the invasion and migration of prostate cancer cells by regulating total m6A levels

ZFHX3 acts as a tumor suppressor in prostate cancer by targeting FTO-mediated m6A demethylation

Zinc-finger homeobox 3 (ZFHX3, also known as ATBF1) suppresses prostatic tumorigenesis. ZFHX3 is frequently found to have numerous deletions in human prostate cancer (PCa). However, the underlying molecular function of ZFHX3 during prostatic tumorigenesis is not well understood. N6-methyladenosine (m6A) modification in RNA plays a critical role in the development of cancers; however, the relationship between ZFHX3 and m6A modification is largely unknown in PCa. In this study, we found that ZFHX3 knockdown decreased total m6A levels through enhancing the transcriptional activity of FTO in PCa cells. Importantly, FTO inhibition suppressed cell proliferation and rescued the promoting function of ZFHX3 knockdown on cell proliferation. In vivo, we verified that FTO was upregulated and ZFHX3 was decreased in PCa patients and that a high level of ZFHX3 is indispensable for low FTO expression and is correlated with better patient survival. Through transcriptome sequencing and MeRIP sequencing, we revealed that E2F2 and CDKN2C were the direct targets of FTO-mediated m6A modification and ZFXH3 was required for the regulation of FTO on E2F2 and CDKN2C expression. Unexpectedly, we uncovered that ZFHX3 expression was in return regulated by FTO in an m6A-dependent way. These findings establish a novel crosstalk mechanism between ZFHX3 and FTO in prostatic tumorigenesis.

Role of N6‑methyladenosine in the pathogenesis, diagnosis and treatment of prostate cancer (Review)

Prostate cancer (PCa) affects males of all racial and ethnic groups, and leads to higher rates of mortality in those belonging to a lower socioeconomic status due to the late detection of the disease. PCa affects middle‑aged males between the ages of 45 and 60 years, and is the highest cause of cancer‑associated mortality in Western countries. As the most abundant and common mRNA modification in higher eukaryotes, N6‑methyladenosine (m6A) is widely distributed in mammalian cells and influences various aspects of mRNA metabolism. Recent studies have found that abnormal expression levels of various m6A regulators significantly affect the development and progression of various types of cancer, including PCa. The present review discusses the influence of m6A regulatory factors on the pathogenesis and progression of PCa through mRNA modification based on the current state of research on m6A methylation modification in PCa. It is considered that the treatment of PCa with micro‑molecular drugs that target the epigenetics of the m6A regulator to correct abnormal m6A modifications is a direction for future research into current diagnostic and therapeutic approaches for PCa.

Demethylases in tumors and the tumor microenvironment: Key modifiers of N6-methyladenosine methylation

RNA methylation modifications are widespread in eukaryotes and prokaryotes, with N6-methyladenosine (m6A) the most common among them. Demethylases, including Fat mass and obesity associated gene (FTO) and AlkB homolog 5 (ALKBH5), are important in maintaining the balance between RNA methylation and demethylation. Recent studies have clearly shown that demethylases affect the biological functions of tumors by regulating their m6A levels. However, their effects are complicated, and even opposite results have appeared in different articles. Here, we summarize the complex regulatory networks of demethylases, including the most important and common pathways, to clarify the role of demethylases in tumors. In addition, we describe the relationships between demethylases and the tumor microenvironment, and introduce their regulatory mechanisms. Finally, we discuss evaluation of demethylases for tumor diagnosis and prognosis, as well as the clinical application of demethylase inhibitors, providing a strong basis for their large-scale clinical application in the future.

The relationship between the network of non-coding RNAs-molecular targets and N6-methyladenosine modification in tumors of urinary system

N6-methyladenosine (m6A) methylation, a prevalent eukaryotic post-transcriptional modification, is involved in multiple biological functions, including mediating variable splicing, RNA maturation, transcription, and nuclear export, and also is vital for regulating RNA translation, stability, and cytoplasmic degradation. For example, m6A methylation can regulate pre-miRNA expression by affecting both splicing and maturation. Non-coding RNA (ncRNA), which includes microRNAs (miRNAs), long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs), and circular RNAs (circRNAs), does not encode proteins but has powerful impacts on transcription and translation. Conversely, ncRNAs may impact m6A methylation by affecting the expression of m6A regulators, including miRNAs targeting mRNA of m6A regulators, or lncRNAs, and circRNAs, acting as scaffolds to regulate transcription of m6A regulatory factors. Dysregulation of m6A methylation is common in urinary tumors, and the regulatory role of ncRNAs is also important for these malignancies. This article provides a systematic review of the role and mechanisms of action of m6A methylation and ncRNAs in urinary tumors.

RNA m6a Methylation Regulator Expression in Castration-Resistant Prostate Cancer Progression and Its Genetic Associations

N6-methyladenosine (m6A) methylation, a prevalent epitranscriptomic modification, plays a crucial role in regulating mRNA expression, stability, and translation in mammals. M6A regulators have gained attention for their potential implications in tumorigenesis and clinical applications, such as cancer diagnosis and therapeutics. The existing literature predominantly addresses m6A regulators in the context of primary prostate cancer (PCa). However, a notable gap in the knowledge emerges regarding the dynamic expression patterns of these regulators as PCa progresses towards the castration-resistant stage (CRPC). Employing sequential window acquisition of all theoretical mass spectra (SWATH-MS) and RNAseq analysis, we comprehensively profiled the expression of 27 m6A regulators in hormone/androgen-dependent and -independent PCa cell lines, revealing distinct clustering between tumor and adjacent normal prostate tissues. High-grade PCa tumors demonstrated the upregulation of METTL3, RBM15B, and HNRNAPA2B1 and the downregulation of ZC3H13, NUDT21, and FTO. Notably, we identified six m6A regulators associated with PCa survival. Additionally, association analysis of the PCa-associated risk loci in the cancer genome atlas program (TCGA) data unveiled genetic variations near the WTAP, HNRNPA2B1, and FTO genes as significant expression quantitative trait loci. In summary, our study unraveled abnormalities in m6A regulator expression in PCa progression, elucidating their association with PCa risk loci. Considering the heterogeneity within the PCa phenotypes and treatment responses, our findings suggest that prognostic stratification based on m6A regulator expression could enhance PCa diagnosis and prognosis.

The FTO Mediated N6-Methyladenosine Modification of DDIT4 Regulation with Tumorigenesis and Metastasis in Prostate Cancer

The progression of numerous malignancies has been linked to N6-methyladenosine (m6A) alteration. However, the opposite trend of m6A levels in the development and metastasis of cancer has not been reported. This study aimed to evaluate the biological function and mechanism of fat mass and obesity-associated protein (FTO) in regulating m6A modification in prostate cancer development and epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT). An EMT model of LNCaP and PC-3 cells was established with transforming growth factor-β treatment, and FTO knockout cell line was established in prostate cancer cells using the CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing technology. The level of m6A modification in tumor tissues was higher than that in normal prostate tissues; m6A levels were decreased after EMT. FTO deletion increased m6A expression and enhanced PC-3 cell motility, invasion, and EMT both in vitro and in vivo. RNA sequencing and functional investigations suggested that DDIT4, a novel EMT target gene, plays a role in m6A-regulated EMT, which was recognized and stabilized by the m6A effector IGF2BP2/3. Decreased FTO expression was an independent indicator of worse survival, and the level of DDIT4 was considerably elevated in patients with bone metastasis. Thus, this study revealed that the m6A demethylase FTO can play different roles in prostate cancer as a regulator of EMT and an inhibitor of m6A modification. Moreover, DDIT4 can be suggested as a possible biomarker for prostate cancer metastasis prediction.

The role of the methyltransferase METTL3 in prostate cancer: a potential therapeutic target

The incidence of prostate cancer (PCa), the most prevalent malignancy, is currently at the forefront. RNA modification is a subfield of the booming field of epigenetics. To date, more than 170 types of RNA modifications have been described, and N6-methyladenosine (m6A) is the most abundant and well-characterized internal modification of mRNAs involved in various aspects of cancer progression. METTL3, the first identified key methyltransferase, regulates human mRNA and non-coding RNA expression in an m6A-dependent manner. This review elucidates the biological function and role of METTL3 in PCa and discusses the implications of METTL3 as a potential therapeutic target for future research directions and clinical applications.

The role of RNA modification in urological cancers: mechanisms and clinical potential

RNA modification is a post-transcriptional level of regulation that is widely distributed in all types of RNAs, including mRNA, tRNA, rRNA, miRNA, and lncRNA, where N6-methyladenine (m6A) is the most abundant mRNA methylation modification. Significant evidence has depicted that m6A modifications are closely related to human diseases, especially cancer, and play pivotal roles in RNA transcription, splicing, stabilization, and translation processes. The most common urological cancers include prostate, bladder, kidney, and testicular cancers, accounting for a certain proportion of human cancers, with an ever-increasing incidence and mortality. The recurrence, systemic metastasis, poor prognosis, and drug resistance of urologic tumors have prompted the identification of new therapeutic targets and mechanisms. Research on m6A modifications may provide new solutions to the current puzzles. In this review, we provide a comprehensive overview of the key roles played by RNA modifications, especially m6A modifications, in urologic cancers, as well as recent research advances in diagnostics and molecularly targeted therapies.

RNA N6-methyladenosine-modified-binding protein YTHDF1 promotes prostate cancer progression by regulating androgen function-related gene TRIM68

PURPOSE

There is no report about the direct relationship between m6A modification and androgen receptor (AR)-related genes in prostate cancer (PC). We aimed to study the mechanisms of m6A methylation in regulating the pathogenesis of PC from the perspective of AR-related genes.

METHODS

qRT-PCR was applied to detect the expression of m6A-related genes in PC cell with or without AR inhibitor. The effects of YTHDF1 knockdown on PC cell viability, apoptosis, migration and invasion were investigated using flow cytometry, wound healing and transwell assays, respectively. The mechanism of YTHDF1 action was investigated using m6A RNA immunoprecipitation (MeRIP) sequencing. The biological functions of YTHDF1 were also explored through in vivo experiments.

RESULTS

YTHDF1 was significantly down-regulated in AR inhibitor group. YTHDF1 knockdown significantly decreased AR level, viability and m6A methylation level of PC cells. TRIM68 was identified as a direct target of YTHDF1. Both YTHDF1 and TRIM68 knockdown increased apoptosis, and decreased cell viability, migration, and invasion of PC cells, while TRIM68 overexpression reversed the effects of YTHDF1 knockdown on PC cells. In addition, knockdown of YTHDF1 or TRIM68 significantly decreased the m6A methylation level, and mRNA and protein levels of YTHDF1, TRIM68 and AR in PC cells, while TRIM68 overexpression increased the expression levels above. Furthermore, subcutaneous xenografts of nude mice also revealed that TRIM68 could reverse the effects of YTHDF1 knockdown in PC in vivo.

CONCLUSION

This study suggested the key role of YTHDF1-mediated m6A modification in PC progression by regulating androgen function-related gene TRIM68 in PC.

The current landscape of m6A modification in urological cancers

N6-methyladenosine (m6A) methylation is a dynamic and reversible procession of epigenetic modifications. It is increasingly recognized that m6A modification has been involved in the tumorigenesis, development, and progression of urological tumors. Emerging research explored the role of m6A modification in urological cancer. In this review, we will summarize the relationship between m6A modification, renal cell carcinoma, bladder cancer, and prostate cancer, and discover the biological function of m6A regulators in tumor cells. We will also discuss the possible mechanism and future application value used as a potential biomarker or therapeutic target to benefit patients with urological cancers.

RNA m6A modification in prostate cancer: A new weapon for its diagnosis and therapy

Prostate cancer (PCa) is the most common malignant tumor and the second leading cause of cancer-related mortality in men worldwide. Despite significant advances in PCa therapy, the underlying molecular mechanisms have yet to be fully elucidated. Recently, epigenetic modification has emerged as a key player in tumor progression, and RNA-based N6-methyladenosine (m6A) epigenetic modification was found to be crucial. This review summarizes comprehensive state-of-art mechanisms underlying m6A modification, its implication in the pathogenesis, and advancement of PCa in protein-coding and non-coding RNA contexts, its relevance to PCa immunotherapy, and the ongoing clinical trials for PCa treatment. This review presents potential m6A-based targets and paves a new avenue for diagnosing and treating PCa, providing new guidelines for future related research through a systematic review of previous results.

The emerging roles and mechanism of N6-methyladenosine (m6A) modifications in urologic tumours progression

Prostate cancer (PCa), bladder cancer (BC), and renal cell cancer (RCC) are the most common urologic tumours in males. N6-methyladenosine (m⁶A), adenosine N6 methylation, is the most prevalent RNA modification in mammals. Increasing evidence suggests that m⁶A plays a crucial role in cancer development. In this review, we comprehensively analyzed the influence of m⁶A methylation on Prostate cancer, bladder cancer, and renal cell cancer and the relationship between the expression of relevant regulatory factors and their development and occurrence, which provides new insights and approaches for the early clinical diagnosis and targeted therapy of urologic malignancies.

FTO-stabilized miR-139-5p targets ZNF217 to suppress prostate cancer cell malignancies by inactivating the PI3K/Akt/mTOR signal pathway

As one of the most important demethylases for RNA N6-methyladenosine (m6A) modifications, fat mass and obesity-associated protein (FTO) plays anti-cancer role during prostate cancer (PC), but it is still unclear the detailed molecular mechanisms. Here, this study verified that FTO inactivated the tumor-accelerating PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway to hamper PC development through regulating the downstream miR-139-5p/zinc finger protein 217 (ZNF217) axis. Through performing clinical analysis, it was revealed that FTO was apparently ablated in the cancerous tissues compared to the normal tissues collected from PC patients, and patients with high-expressed FTO predicted a favorable prognosis. Functional experiments confirmed that overexpression of FTO suppressed cell proliferation, mitosis, epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), tumorigenesis and lung metastasis both in vitro and in vivo. The following mechanical experiments verified that FTO stabilized miR-139-5p to increase its expression levels in a m6A-dependent manner, and elevated miR-139-5p induced degradation of ZNF217 through binding to ZNF217 mRNA, resulting in the inactivation of the PI3K/Akt/mTOR signal pathway. Finally, our rescuing experiments confirmed that overexpressed FTO-induced tumor-suppressing effects on PC cells were abrogated by miR-139-5p ablation and ZNF217 overexpression. Collectively, this study firstly validated that FTO exerted its anti-tumor effects in PC through regulating the miR-139-5p/ZNF217 axis in a m6A-dependent manner, providing novel biomarkers for the advancement of anti-cancer agents for PC treatment.

The role of demethylase AlkB homologs in cancer

The AlkB family (ALKBH1-8 and FTO), a member of the Fe (II)- and α-ketoglutarate-dependent dioxygenase superfamily, has shown the ability to catalyze the demethylation of a variety of substrates, including DNA, RNA, and histones. Methylation is one of the natural organisms’ most prevalent forms of epigenetic modifications. Methylation and demethylation processes on genetic material regulate gene transcription and expression. A wide variety of enzymes are involved in these processes. The methylation levels of DNA, RNA, and histones are highly conserved. Stable methylation levels at different stages can coordinate the regulation of gene expression, DNA repair, and DNA replication. Dynamic methylation changes are essential for the abilities of cell growth, differentiation, and division. In some malignancies, the methylation of DNA, RNA, and histones is frequently altered. To date, nine AlkB homologs as demethylases have been identified in numerous cancers’ biological processes. In this review, we summarize the latest advances in the research of the structures, enzymatic activities, and substrates of the AlkB homologs and the role of these nine homologs as demethylases in cancer genesis, progression, metastasis, and invasion. We provide some new directions for the AlkB homologs in cancer research. In addition, the AlkB family is expected to be a new target for tumor diagnosis and treatment.

Research progress of m6A methylation in prostate cancer

N⁶-methyladenosine (m⁶A) is a ubiquitous RNA modification in mammals. This modification is "written" by methyltransferases and then "read" by m⁶A-binding proteins, followed by a series of regulation, such as alternative splicing, translation, RNA stability, and RNA translocation. At last, the modification is "erased" by demethylases. m⁶A modification is essential for normal physiological processes in mammals and is also a very important epigenetic modification in the development of cancer. In recent years, cancer-related m⁶A regulation has been widely studied, and various mechanisms of m⁶A regulation in cancer have also been recognized. In this review, we summarize the changes of m⁶A modification in prostate cancer and discuss the effect of m⁶A regulation on prostate cancer progression, aiming to profile the potential relevance between m⁶A regulation and prostate cancer development. Intensive studies on m⁶A regulation in prostate cancer may uncover the potential role of m⁶A methylation in the cancer diagnosis and cancer therapy.

Recent Advances in RNA m6A Modification in Solid Tumors and Tumor Immunity

An analogous field to epigenetics is referred to as epitranscriptomics, which focuses on the study of post-transcriptional chemical modifications in RNA. RNA molecules, including mRNA, tRNA, rRNA, and other non-coding RNA molecules, can be edited with numerous modifications. The most prevalent modification in eukaryotic mRNA is N6-methyladenosine (m6A), which is a reversible modification found in over 7000 human genes. Recent technological advances have accelerated the characterization of these modifications, and they have been shown to play important roles in many biological processes, including pathogenic processes such as cancer. In this chapter, we discuss the role of m6A mRNA modification in cancer with a focus on solid tumor biology and immunity. m6A RNA methylation and its regulatory proteins can play context-dependent roles in solid tumor development and progression by modulating RNA metabolism to drive oncogenic or tumor-suppressive cellular pathways. m6A RNA methylation also plays dynamic roles within both immune cells and tumor cells to mediate the anti-tumor immune response. Finally, an emerging area of research within epitranscriptomics studies the role of m6A RNA methylation in promoting sensitivity or resistance to cancer therapies, including chemotherapy, targeted therapy, and immunotherapy. Overall, our understanding of m6A RNA methylation in solid tumors has advanced significantly, and continued research is needed both to fill gaps in knowledge and to identify potential areas of focus for therapeutic development.

The controversial role and therapeutic development of the m6A demethylase FTO in renal cell carcinoma

Fat mass and obesity-associated (FTO) protein, the first m6A demethylase identified in 2011, regulates multiple aspects of RNA biology including splicing, localization, stability, and translation. Accumulating data show that FTO is involved in numerous physiological processes and is implicated in multiple cancers including renal cell carcinoma (RCC). However, the exact role of FTO in RCC remains controversial. Some studies demonstrated that decreased FTO expression was associated with aggressive clinical features and shorter overall survival in clear cell RCC (ccRCC) patients, while others found that FTO inhibition selectively reduced the growth and survival of VHL-deficient ccRCC cells in vitro and in vivo. Here, we review the evidence supporting either a promoting or suppressive role of FTO in kidney cancers, the mechanisms of action of FTO, and recent progress in developing FTO inhibitors.

Functions and mechanisms of N6‑methyladenosine in prostate cancer (Review)

Prostate cancer (PCa) has long been a major public health problem affecting men worldwide. Even with treatment, it can develop into castration-resistant PCa. With the continuous advancement in epigenetics, researchers have explored N6-methyladenosine (m⁶A) in search of a more effective and lasting treatment for PCa. m⁶A is widely distributed in mammalian cells and influences various aspects of mRNA metabolism. Recently, it has been associated with the development or suppression of various types of cancer, including PCa. This review summarizes the recent findings on m⁶A regulation and its functions and mechanisms in cells, focusing on the various functional proteins operating within m⁶A in PCa cells. Moreover, the potential clinical value of exploiting m⁶A modification as an early diagnostic marker in PCa diagnosis and therapeutics was discussed. m⁶A may also be used as an indicator to evaluate treatment outcome and prognosis.

Role of m6A writers, erasers and readers in cancer

The N(6)-methyladenosine (m6A) modification is the most pervasive modification of human RNAs. In recent years, an increasing number of studies have suggested that m6A likely plays important roles in cancers. Many studies have demonstrated that m6A is involved in the biological functions of cancer cells, such as proliferation, invasion, metastasis, and drug resistance. In addition, m6A is closely related to the prognosis of cancer patients. In this review, we highlight recent advances in understanding the function of m6A in various cancers. We emphasize the importance of m6A to cancer progression and look forward to describe future research directions.

ELAVL1 promotes prostate cancer progression by interacting with other m6A regulators

N6-Methyladenosine (m6A) imbalance is an important factor in the occurrence and development of prostate cancer (PCa). Many m6A regulators have been found to be significantly dysregulated in PCa. ELAVL1 is an m6A binding protein that can promote the occurrence and development of tumors in an m6A-dependent manner. In this study, we found that most m6A regulators were significantly dysregulated in PCa, and some m6A regulators were associated with the progression-free interval. Mutations and copy number variations of these m6A regulators can alter their expression. However, ELAVL1 mutations were not found in PCa. Nevertheless, ELAVL1 upregulation was closely related to PCa proliferation. High ELAVL1 expression was also related to RNA metabolism. Further experiments showed that ELAVL1 interacted with other m6A regulators and that several m6A regulatory mRNAs have m6A sites that can be recognized by ELAVL1. Additionally, protein–protein interactions occur between ELAVL1 and other m6A regulators. Finally, we found that the dysregulation of ELAVL1 expression occurred in almost all tumors, and interactions between ELAVL1 and other m6A regulators also existed in almost all tumors. In summary, ELAVL1 is an important molecule in the development of PCa, and its interactions with other m6A regulators may play important roles in PCa progression.

Methyladenosine Modification in RNAs: From Regulatory Roles to Therapeutic Implications in Cancer

Simple Summary

Cancer remains a burden to the public health all over the world. An increasing number of studies have concentrated on the role of methyladenosine modifications on cancers. Methyladenosine modifications mainly include N6-methyladenosine (m⁶A), N1-methyladenosine (m¹A), and 2’-O-methyladenosine (m⁶A_m), of which dynamic changes could modulate the metabolism of RNAs in eukaryotic cells. Mounting evidence has confirmed the crucial role of methyladenosine modification in cancer, offering possibilities for cancer therapy. In this review, we discussed the regulatory role of methyladenosine modification on cancer, as well as their potential for treatment.

Abstract

Methyladenosine modifications are the most abundant RNA modifications, including N6-methyladenosine (m⁶A), N1-methyladenosine (m¹A), and 2’-O-methyladenosine (m⁶A_m). As reversible epigenetic modifications, methyladenosine modifications in eukaryotic RNAs are not invariable. Drastic alterations of m⁶A are found in a variety of diseases, including cancers. Dynamic changes of m⁶A modification induced by abnormal methyltransferase, demethylases, and readers can regulate cancer progression via interfering with the splicing, localization, translation, and stability of mRNAs. Meanwhile, m⁶A, m¹A, and m⁶A_m modifications also exert regulatory effects on noncoding RNAs in cancer progression. In this paper, we reviewed recent findings concerning the underlying biomechanism of methyladenosine modifications in oncogenesis and metastasis and discussed the therapeutic potential of methyladenosine modifications in cancer treatments.

M6A-Related Bioinformatics Analysis Reveals a New Prognostic Risk Signature in Cutaneous Malignant Melanoma

Cutaneous malignant melanoma (CMM) is the most deadly skin cancer worldwide. Despite advances in the treatments of CMM, its incidence and mortality rates are still increasing. N6-methyladenosine (m6A) is the most common form of RNA modification and has attracted increasing interest in cancer initiation and progression. However, the role of m6A regulators in CMM and their correlation with prognosis remain elusive. Here, we demonstrated that by applying consensus clustering, all CMM patient cases can be divided into two clusters based on overall expression levels of 25 m6A genes. We systematically analyzed the prognostic value of the 25 m6A RNA methylation regulators in CMM and found that ELAVL1, ABCF1, and IGF2BP1 yield the highest scores for predicting the prognosis of CMM. Accordingly, we derived a risk signature consisting of three selected m6A genes as an independent prognostic marker for CMM and validated our findings with data derived from a different CMM cohort. Next, we determined that CNVs in m6A genes had a significant negative impact on patient survival. The mRNA expression levels of m6A genes were correlated with CNV mutation. Moreover, in the selected three risk signature m6A regulators, GSEA analysis showed that they were closely correlated with inflammation and immune pathways. TME analysis proved that m6A gene expressions were negatively correlated with immune cell infiltration. In conclusion, m6A regulators are vital participants in CMM pathology; and ELAVL1, ABCF1, and IGF2BP1 mRNA levels are valuable factors for prognosis prediction and treatment strategy development.

Type 2 Diabetes-Related Variants Influence the Risk of Developing Prostate Cancer: A Population-Based Case-Control Study and Meta-Analysis

In this study, we have evaluated whether 57 genome-wide association studies (GWAS)-identified common variants for type 2 diabetes (T2D) influence the risk of developing prostate cancer (PCa) in a population of 304 Caucasian PCa patients and 686 controls. The association of selected single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) with the risk of PCa was validated through meta-analysis of our data with those from the UKBiobank and FinnGen cohorts, but also previously published genetic studies. We also evaluated whether T2D SNPs associated with PCa risk could influence host immune responses by analysing their correlation with absolute numbers of 91 blood-derived cell populations and circulating levels of 103 immunological proteins and 7 steroid hormones. We also investigated the correlation of the most interesting SNPs with cytokine levels after in vitro stimulation of whole blood, peripheral mononuclear cells (PBMCs), and monocyte-derived macrophages with LPS, PHA, Pam3Cys, and Staphylococcus Aureus. The meta-analysis of our data with those from six large cohorts confirmed that each copy of the FTO_rs9939609A, HNF1B_rs7501939T, HNF1B_rs757210T, HNF1B_rs4430796G, and JAZF1_rs10486567A alleles significantly decreased risk of developing PCa (p = 3.70 × 10^-5, p = 9.39 × 10^-54, p = 5.04 × 10^-54, p = 1.19 × 10^-71, and p = 1.66 × 10^-18, respectively). Although it was not statistically significant after correction for multiple testing, we also found that the NOTCH2_rs10923931T and RBMS1_rs7593730 SNPs associated with the risk of developing PCa (p = 8.49 × 10^-4 and 0.004). Interestingly, we found that the protective effect attributed to the HFN1B locus could be mediated by the SULT1A1 protein (p = 0.00030), an arylsulfotransferase that catalyzes the sulfate conjugation of many hormones, neurotransmitters, drugs, and xenobiotic compounds. In addition to these results, eQTL analysis revealed that the HNF1B_rs7501939, HNF1B_rs757210, HNF1B_rs4430796, NOTCH2_rs10923931, and RBMS1_rs7593730 SNPs influence the risk of PCa through the modulation of mRNA levels of their respective genes in whole blood and/or liver. These results confirm that functional TD2-related variants influence the risk of developing PCa, but also highlight the need of additional experiments to validate our functional results in a tumoral tissue context.

The Potential Role of m6A RNA Methylation in the Aging Process and Aging-Associated Diseases

N6-methyladenosine (m⁶A) is the most common and conserved internal eukaryotic mRNA modification. m⁶A modification is a dynamic and reversible post-transcriptional regulatory modification, initiated by methylase and removed by RNA demethylase. m⁶A-binding proteins recognise the m⁶A modification to regulate gene expression. Recent studies have shown that altered m⁶A levels and abnormal regulator expression are crucial in the ageing process and the occurrence of age-related diseases. In this review, we summarise some key findings in the field of m⁶A modification in the ageing process and age-related diseases, including cell senescence, autophagy, inflammation, oxidative stress, DNA damage, tumours, neurodegenerative diseases, diabetes, and cardiovascular diseases (CVDs). We focused on the biological function and potential molecular mechanisms of m⁶A RNA methylation in ageing and age-related disease progression. We believe that m⁶A modification may provide a new target for anti-ageing therapies.

FTO in cancer: functions, molecular mechanisms, and therapeutic implications

N⁶-methyladenosine (m⁶A) is the most abundant internal modification in mRNA that affects RNA processing, stability, and translation. Discovered as the first RNA m⁶A demethylase, the fat mass and obesity-associated protein (FTO) is frequently dysregulated and plays important roles in various types of cancers. Targeting FTO holds promising therapeutic significance via suppressing tumor growth, potentiating immunotherapy, and attenuating drug resistance. Here, we review recent advances in our understanding of the functions and underlying molecular mechanisms of FTO in tumor development, cancer stem cell (CSC) self-renewal, microenvironment regulation, immunity, and metabolism and discuss the therapeutic potential of targeting FTO for cancer treatment.

Epigenetic and Epitranscriptomic Control in Prostate Cancer

The initiation of prostate cancer has been long associated with DNA copy-number alterations, the loss of specific chromosomal regions and gene fusions, and driver mutations, especially those of the Androgen Receptor. Non-mutational events, particularly DNA and RNA epigenetic dysregulation, are emerging as key players in tumorigenesis. In this review we summarize the molecular changes linked to epigenetic and epitranscriptomic dysregulation in prostate cancer and the role that alterations to DNA and RNA modifications play in the initiation and progression of prostate cancer.

Construction of a risk prediction model using m6A RNA methylation regulators in prostate cancer: comprehensive bioinformatic analysis and histological validation

Background

Epigenetic reprogramming reportedly has a crucial role in prostate cancer (PCa) progression. RNA modification is a hot topic in epigenetics, and N6-methyladenosine (m6A) accounts for approximately 60% of RNA chemical modifications. The aim of this study was to evaluate the m6A modification patterns in PCa patients and construct a risk prediction model using m6A RNA regulators.

Materials and methods

Analyses were based on the levels of 25 m6A regulators in The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA). Differentially expressed gene (DEG) and survival analyses were performed according to TCGA-PRAD clinicopathologic and follow-up information. To detect the influences of m6A regulators and their DEGs, consensus clustering analysis was performed, and tumor mutational burden (TMB) estimation and tumor microenvironment (TME) cell infiltration were assessed. mRNA levels of representative genes were verified using clinical PCa data.

Results

Diverse expression patterns of m6A regulators between tumor and normal (TN) tissues were detected regarding Gleason score (GS), pathological T stage (pT), TP53 mutation, and survival comparisons, with HNRNPA2B1 and IGFBP3 being intersecting genes. HNRNPA2B1 was upregulated in advanced stages (GS > 7, pT3, HR > 1, and TP53 mutation), as verified using clinical PCa tissue. Three distinct m6A modification patterns were identified through consensus clustering analysis, but no significant difference was found among these groups in recurrence-free survival (RFS) analysis. Six DEGs of m6A clusters (m6Aclusters) were screened through univariate Cox regression analysis. MMAB and PAIAP2 were intersecting genes for the five clinical factors. MMAB, which was upregulated in PCa compared with TN, was verified using clinical PCa samples. Three distinct subgroups were established according to the 6 DEGs. Cluster A involved the most advanced stages and had the poorest RFS. The m6A score (m6Ascore) was calculated based on the 6 genes, and the low m6Ascore group showed poor RFS with a negative association with infiltration for 16 of 23 immune-related cells.

Conclusion

We screened DEGs of m6Aclusters and identified 6 genes (BAIAP2, TEX264, MMAB, JAGN1, TIMM8AP1, and IMP3), with which we constructed a highly predictive model with prognostic value by dividing TCGA-PRAD into three distinct subgroups and performing m6Ascore analysis. This study helps to elucidate the integral effects of m6A modification patterns on PCa progression.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12935-021-02438-1.

RNA m6A Methylation Regulators Multi-Omics Analysis in Prostate Cancer

RNA N6-methyladenosine (m6A) methylation is known to be the most popular RNA modification in animals. Many research reports have elaborated on the effects of m6A regulators in medical practice, such as diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment. M6A modification has evident impacts on many aspects of RNA metabolism, just like RNA splicing, processing, translation, and stability. M6A also has a magnificent role in numerous types of cancers. We analyzed the prostate cancer datasets, from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database, for every recognized m6A regulator in their gene expression, DNA methylation status and copy number variations (CNVs). We also systematically analyzed the relationship between different m6A regulators and the prognosis of prostate cancer. The results illustrated considerable differences in the expression of various m6A regulators between the prostate and normal cancer samples. At the same time, there were evident differences in the expression of various m6A regulators in prostate cancers with different Gleason scores. Subsequently, we determined CBLL1, FTO, YTHDC1, HNRNPA2B1 as crucial m6A regulators of prostate cancer. Premised on the expression of CBLL1, we also identified potential therapeutic agents for prostate cancer, and knockdown of FTO prominently inhibited prostate cells migration and invasion in vitro experiment.

Demethyltransferase FTO alpha-ketoglutarate dependent dioxygenase (FTO) regulates the proliferation, migration, invasion and tumor growth of prostate cancer by modulating the expression of melanocortin 4 receptor (MC4R)

N6-Methyladenosine (m6A) is the most abundant modifications in human messenger RNAs (mRNAs). This study aimed at investigating the function and mechanism of demethyltransferase fat mass and obesity-associated protein (FTO) in prostate cancer(PCa). The expression level of FTO in PCa was detected by quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) and western blot. Besides, the impacts of FTO on the proliferation, migration and invasion of PCa cells were also detected by cell counting kit-8 (CCK-8), 5-ethynyl-2'-deoxyuridine (EdU) and transwell assays. Furthermore, we also explored the potential mechanism of FTO in PCa. The results showed that FTO expression was decreased in PCa, and the low expression of FTO showed an obvious relevance to the clinical characteristics. Downregulation of FTO facilitated the proliferation, migration, invasion and tumor growth of PCa cells. Besides, MC4R displayed a remarkably high expression in PCa tissues, whose expression and m6A level were regulated by FTO. Meanwhile, the in vitro experiments revealed that highly expressed FTO partially reversed the facilitating effect of highly expressed MC4R on the malignant phenotype of PCa cells. Overall, FTO was downregulated in PCa and its expression level showed a relevance to the prognosis of PCa patients. Additionally, FTO could regulate the proliferation, migration and invasion of PCa via regulating the expression level of MC4R.

FTO Gene Polymorphisms Contribute to the Predisposition and Radiotherapy Efficiency of Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma

Background

Nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) is mainly concentrated in East and Southeast Asia. This study aims to elucidate the potential associations of functional SNPs in the fat mass and obesity associated gene (FTO) with NPC risk and radiotherapy outcomes in a Chinese population.

Methods

Functional SNP rs1477196 G>A, rs9939609 T>A, rs7206790 C>G, and rs8047395 A>G were genotyped and evaluated for their associations with NPC risk and radiotherapy outcomes.

Results

Both rs9939609 (allele A versus allele T: OR=1.59; 95% CI=1.17–2.17; P-value=0.003) and rs8047395 (allele G versus allele A: OR=0.76; 95% CI=0.64–0.9; P-value=0.002) were significantly associated with risk of NPC. GTEx showed risk allele A of rs9939609 and rs8047395 were significantly associated with higher FTO mRNA levels in skeletal muscle tissue, which also corroborated our findings. Meanwhile, both rs1477196 (allele A versus allele G: OR=1.64; 95% CI=1.09–2.49; P-value=0.019) and rs9939609 (allele A versus allele T: OR=0.61; 95% CI=0.43–0.87; P-value=0.006) were significantly associated with complete remission (CR) of NPC.

Conclusion

Our study identified that FTO polymorphisms contributed to the susceptibility and radiotherapy efficacy of NPC. These results shed light on the potential of establishing markers for predicting risk and personalized treatment of NPC.

Role of RNA N6-Methyladenosine Modification in Male Infertility and Genital System Tumors

Epigenetic alterations, particularly RNA methylation, play a crucial role in many types of disease development and progression. Among them, N6-methyladenosine (m6A) is the most common epigenetic RNA modification, and its important roles are not only related to the occurrence, progression, and aggressiveness of tumors but also affect the progression of many non-tumor diseases. The biological effects of RNA m6A modification are dynamically and reversibly regulated by methyltransferases (writers), demethylases (erasers), and m6A binding proteins (readers). This review summarized the current finding of the RNA m6A modification regulators in male infertility and genital system tumors and discussed the role and potential clinical application of the RNA m6A modification in spermatogenesis and male genital system tumors.