Alphanumeric and non-alphanumeric Rapid Automatized Naming in children with reading and/or spelling difficulties and mathematical difficulties

Complex network of eye movements during rapid automatized naming

Introduction

Although the method of visualizing eye-tracking data as a time-series might enhance performance in the understanding of gaze behavior, it has not yet been thoroughly examined in the context of rapid automated naming (RAN).

Methods

This study attempted, for the first time, to measure gaze behavior during RAN from the perspective of network-domain, which constructed a complex network [referred to as gaze-time-series-based complex network (GCN)] from gaze time-series. Hence, without designating regions of interest, the features of gaze behavior during RAN were extracted by computing topological parameters of GCN. A sample of 98 children (52 males, aged 11.50 ± 0.28 years) was studied. Nine topological parameters (i.e., average degree, network diameter, characteristic path length, clustering coefficient, global efficiency, assortativity coefficient, modularity, community number, and small-worldness) were computed.

Results

Findings showed that GCN in each RAN task was assortative and possessed “small-world” and community architecture. Additionally, observations regarding the influence of RAN task types included that: (i) five topological parameters (i.e., average degree, clustering coefficient, assortativity coefficient, modularity, and community number) could reflect the difference between tasks N-num (i.e., naming of numbers) and N-cha (i.e., naming of Chinese characters); (ii) there was only one topological parameter (i.e., network diameter) which could reflect the difference between tasks N-obj (i.e., naming of objects) and N-col (i.e., naming of colors); and (iii) when compared to GCN in alphanumeric RAN, GCN in non-alphanumeric RAN may have higher average degree, global efficiency, and small-worldness, but lower network diameter, characteristic path length, clustering coefficient, and modularity. Findings also illustrated that most of these topological parameters were largely independent of traditional eye-movement metrics.

Discussion

This article revealed the architecture and topological parameters of GCN as well as the influence of task types on them, and thus brought some new insights into the understanding of RAN from the perspective of complex network.

The relationship between phonological processing and arithmetic in children with learning disabilities

Phonological processing skills have not only been shown to be important for reading skills, but also for arithmetic skills. Specifically, previous research in typically developing children has suggested that phonological processing skills may be more closely related to arithmetic problems that are solved through fact retrieval (e.g., remembering the solution from memory) than procedural computation (e.g., counting). However, the relationship between phonological processing and arithmetic in children with learning disabilities (LDs) has not been investigated. Yet, understanding these relationships in children with LDs is especially important because it can help elucidate the cognitive underpinnings of math difficulties, explain why reading and math disabilities frequently co-occur, and provide information on which cognitive skills to target for interventions. In 63 children with LDs, we examined the relationship between different phonological processing skills (phonemic awareness, phonological memory, and rapid serial naming) and arithmetic. We distinguished between arithmetic problems that tend to be solved with fact retrieval versus procedural computation to determine whether phonological processing skills are differentially related to these two arithmetic processes. We found that phonemic awareness, but not phonological memory or rapid serial naming, was related to arithmetic fact retrieval. We also found no association between any phonological processing skills and procedural computation. These results converge with prior research in typically developing children and suggest that phonemic awareness is also related to arithmetic fact retrieval in children with LD. These results raise the possibility that phonemic awareness training might improve both reading and arithmetic fact retrieval skills. RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS: Relationships between phonological processing and various arithmetic skills were investigated in children with learning disabilities (LDs) for the first time. We found phonemic awareness was related to arithmetic involving fact retrieval, but not to arithmetic involving procedural computation in LDs. The results suggest that phonemic awareness is not only important to skilled reading, but also to some aspects of arithmetic. These results raise the question of whether intervention in phonemic awareness might improve arithmetic fact retrieval skills.

Phonological Processing, Visuospatial Skills, and Pattern Understanding in Chinese Developmental Dyscalculia

A number of previous studies have identified cognitive deficits in developmental dyscalculia (DD). Yet, most of these studies were in alphabetic languages, whereas few of them examined Chinese DD. Here, we conducted a study aiming to determine the cognitive factors associated with DD in Chinese children. Five candidate cognitive factors of DD-phonological retrieval, phonological awareness, visual-spatial attention, spatial thinking, and pattern understanding-were examined in the present study. A total of 904 Chinese children ages 8 to 11 years participated in this study. From the sample, 97 children were identified with DD through tests of arithmetic ability, and 93 age- and IQ-matched typically developing children were selected as controls. Logistic regression analysis revealed that phonological retrieval, pattern understanding, visual-spatial attention, and phonological awareness significantly predicted DD, whereas spatial thinking failed to do so. Results of logistic relative weights analysis showed that all five factors explained statistically significant amounts of variance in arithmetic scores. Phonological retrieval had the most influence on DD, followed by pattern understanding, visual-spatial attention, phonological awareness, and spatial thinking. These findings have important clinical implications for diagnosis and intervention of Chinese DD.

Rapid Automatized Naming as a Universal Marker of Developmental Dyslexia in Italian Monolingual and Minority-Language Children

Rapid Automatized Naming (RAN) is considered a universal marker of developmental dyslexia (DD) and could also be helpful to identify a reading deficit in minority-language children (MLC), in which it may be hard to disentangle whether the reading difficulties are due to a learning disorder or a lower proficiency in the language of instruction. We tested reading and rapid naming skills in monolingual Good Readers (mGR), monolingual Poor Readers (mPR), and MLC, by using our new version of RAN, the RAN-Shapes, in 127 primary school students (from 3rd to 5th grade). In line with previous research, MLC showed, on average, lower reading performances as compared to mGR. However, the two groups performed similarly to the RAN-Shapes task. On the contrary, the mPR group underperformed both in the reading and the RAN tasks. Our findings suggest that reading difficulties and RAN performance can be dissociated in MLC; consequently, the performance at the RAN-Shapes may contribute to the identification of children at risk of a reading disorder without introducing any linguistic bias, when testing MLC.

Domain-General Cognitive Skills in Children with Mathematical Difficulties and Dyscalculia: A Systematic Review of the Literature

Mathematical performance implies a series of numerical and mathematical skills (both innate and derived from formal training) as well as certain general cognitive abilities that, if inadequate, can have a cascading effect on mathematics learning. These latter skills were the focus of the present systematic review. Method: The reviewing process was conducted according to the PRISMA statement. We included 46 studies comparing school-aged children’s performance with and without math difficulties in the following cognitive domains: processing speed, phonological awareness, short- and long-term memory, executive functions, and attention. Results: The results showed that some general cognitive domains were compromised in children with mathematical difficulties (i.e., executive functions, attention, and processing speed). Conclusions: These cognitive functions should be evaluated during the diagnostic process in order to better understand the child’s profile and propose individually tailored interventions. However, further studies should investigate the role of skills that have been poorly investigated to date (e.g., long-term memory and phonological awareness).

Acquisition of Mathematical and Linguistic Skills in Children With Learning Difficulties

Comorbid learning difficulties in linguistic and mathematical skills often emerge in primary school age. The cause of coinciding of both learning difficulties during children's development spanning pre- and primary-school age is not yet well understood. To address this research gap, we used data from the German National Educational Panel Study (NEPS; n = 301) of four groups of children which were categorized according to their skill levels in pre-school age: children with learning difficulties isolated in linguistic skills (LD), children with learning difficulties isolated in mathematical skills (MD), children with learning difficulties combined in linguistic and mathematical skills (MD/LD), and children with typical development in both skills (TA). Computing univariate and repeated measures ANCOVAs we compared the mathematical and linguistic development of the four groups of children (LD, MD, LD/MD, and TA) spanning age four to ten. Results reveal a partial catch-up in linguistic skills (lexical, grammatical) for children with LD. In contrast, children with MD did not overcome their mathematical competence gap in comparison with TA and LD. Moreover, children with MD showed a decrease in grammatical skills during transition in primary school. Further, children with MD/LD displayed the weakest performance in linguistic and mathematical skills during pre- and primary-school age in general. However, after controlling for working memory, initial performance differences between the groups decreased in favor of MD/LD. The relation between linguistic skills and mathematical skills in persisting learning difficulties as well as the specific role of working memory are discussed.

Features of eye movements during rapid automatized naming in Chinese children aged 7-11 years

Rapid Automatized Naming (RAN) tests have been well-documented to predict reading abilities as well as a variety of neurobiological disorders (e.g., developmental dyslexia). Traditional measures of RAN tests only take into account the naming time and accuracy and cannot reflect temporal-spatial features during RAN tests. Although the eye tracking approach appears to be a promising tool for characterizing the essential temporal-spatial characteristics of RAN tests, no research has been conducted to investigate whether and how gender, age, and task-type alter those characteristics. Additionally, no study has examined eye movements during a Chinese adaptation of RAN in order to expand the applicability of RAN to developmental dyslexia in Chinese. To address the concerns stated above, this article recruited 408 children (206 males, aged 7-11 years) and adopted eight measures to quantify features of eye movements during a Chinese adaptation of RAN. Findings showed that: (1) eight eye-movement measures had the main effects of task-type and age, but only five of them had the main effect of gender (in particular, females outperformed males); (2) RAN abilities observed by eight eye-movement measures initially developed quickly before the age of 9, and then entered a relatively sluggish development phase; (3) non-alphanumeric RAN tasks generally required higher mental load (implying more fixation counts, saccade counts, and regression counts, smaller average saccade amplitude, fixation duration fluctuation and saccade amplitude fluctuation, and longer average fixation duration and total time of naming) than alphanumeric ones; (4) there were significant correlations between total time of naming (a widely-used behavioral parameter) and other eye-movement measures; and (5) there were significant correlation between eight eye-movement measures and three attention-related skills observed from a number cancellation task. The current study might offer some perspectives on the understanding of normative data of eye movements during RAN in Chinese school-aged children, as well as the applications (e.g., developmental dyslexia) associated with RAN.

Reading Comprehension Predictors in European Portuguese Adults

Research on the predictors of reading comprehension has been largely focused on school-aged children and mainly in opaque orthographies, hindering the generalization of the results to adult populations and more transparent orthographies. In the present study, we aim to test two versions of the Simple View of Reading (SVR): the original model and an extended version, including reading fluency and vocabulary. Additional mediation models were analyzed to verify if other reading comprehension predictors (rapid automatized naming, phonological decoding, phonological awareness, morphological awareness, and working memory) have direct effects or if they are mediated through word reading and reading fluency. A sample of 67 typical adult Portuguese readers participated in this study. The SVR model accounted for 27% of the variance in reading comprehension, with oral language comprehension displaying a larger contribution than word reading. In the extended SVR model, reading fluency and vocabulary provided an additional and significant contribution of 7% to the explained variance. Moreover, vocabulary influenced reading comprehension directly and indirectly, via oral language comprehension. In the final mediation model, the total mediation hypothesis was rejected, and only morphological awareness showed a direct effect on reading comprehension. These results provide preliminary evidence that the SVR (with the possible addition of vocabulary) might be a reliable model to explain reading comprehension in adult typical readers in a semitransparent orthography. Furthermore, oral language comprehension and vocabulary were the best predictors in the study, suggesting that remediation programs addressing reading comprehension in adults should promote these abilities.

Rapid automatized naming skills of children with intellectual disability

Background

A deficit in Rapid Automatized Naming (RAN), acknowledged to be linked to dyslexia, has rarely been investigated as a potential explanation of the reading difficulties that children with intellectual disability (ID) often face. The existing studies mainly focused on adolescent or adults with ID matched to typically developing (TD) children on verbal mental age, or used a single RAN task.

Aims

The aim of this study was to compare the RAN pattern and skills of children with ID and low reading skills to the ones of TD children with matched reading skills.

Method

30 children with mild to moderate ID with mixed etiology (M = 9.4 years-old) were pair-matched to 30 TD children (M = 4.3 years-old) on phonological awareness- and reading-level. They were all administered color, object, finger, and vowel RAN tasks.

Outcomes and results

Results showed that children with ID had more domain-specific RAN skills and were largely slower in most of the RAN tasks than their younger TD peers.

Conclusions and implications

This suggests that a deficit in RAN should be added to the explanations of their frequent reading difficulties, which might open new remediation possibilities.

Separable effects of the approximate number system, symbolic number knowledge, and number ordering ability on early arithmetic development

There is evidence that early variations in the development of an approximate number system (ANS) and symbolic number understanding are both influences on the later development of formal arithmetic skills. We report a large-scale (N = 552) longitudinal study of the predictors of arithmetic spanning a critical developmental period (the first 3 years of formal education). Variations in early knowledge of symbolic representations of number and the ordinal associations between them are direct predictors of later arithmetic skills. The development of number ordering ability is in turn predicted by earlier variations in arithmetic, the ANS (numerosity judgments), and rapid automatized naming (RAN). These findings have important implications for theories of numerical and arithmetical development and potentially for the teaching of these skills.

How Cognitive Strengths Compensate Weaknesses Related to Specific Learning Difficulties in Fourth-Grade Children

The goal of the present study was to investigate whether children's cognitive strengths can compensate the accompanied weaknesses related to their specific learning difficulties. A Bayesian multigroup mediation SEM analysis in 281 fourth-grade children identified a cognitive compensatory mechanism in children with mathematical learning difficulties (n = 36): Children with weak number sense, but strong rapid naming performed slightly better on mathematics compared to peers with weak rapid naming. In contrast, a compensatory mechanism was not identified for children with a comorbid mathematical and reading difficulty (n = 16). One explanation for the latter finding could relate to the lack of ability to compensate, because of the difficulties these children experience in both academic domains. These findings lead to a new direction in research on learning difficulties in mathematics and/or reading by suggesting that children with a learning disability each have a unique profile of interrelated cognitive strengths and weaknesses. Children might compensate with these strengths for their weaknesses, which could lead to (small) learning gains in the affected domain.

The relevance of subtyping children with mathematical learning disabilities

BACKGROUND

Profiles of mathematical learning disability (MLD) have been conceptualized in the literature, but empirical evidence to support them based on academic and cognitive characteristics is lacking.

AIMS

We examined whether profiles of mathematics performance can empirically be identified and whether the identified profiles also differ in underlying cognitive skills.

METHODS AND PROCEDURES

Latent profile analysis in 281 fourth-graders. Basic arithmetic and advanced mathematics were used to identify profiles. Cognitive skills were then described for each profile of mathematics performance.

OUTCOMES AND RESULTS

Four profiles of mathematics performance were retrieved from the data, including one general low-achieving profile. Additional profiles of MLD were not found, possibly because individual variation was substantial.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

It is highly important to understand children's mathematics performance from an individual perspective, rather than by averaging these children over subgroups. These new insights can be used to better tend to the specific needs of children with mathematical difficulties.

The Diagnosis and Treatment of Dyscalculia

BACKGROUND

3-7% of all children, adolescents, and adults suffer from dyscalculia. Severe, persistent difficulty performing arithmetical calculations leads to marked impairment in school, at work, and in everyday life and elevates the risk of comorbid mental disorders. The state of the evidence underlying various methods of diagnosing and treating this condition is unclear.

METHODS

Systematic literature searches were carried out from April 2015 to June 2016 in the PsycInfo, PSYNDEX, MEDLINE, ProQuest, ERIC, Cochrane Library, ICTRP, and MathEduc databases. The main search terms on dyscalculia were the German terms "Rechenstörung," "Rechenschwäche," and "Dyskalkulie" and the English terms "dyscalculia," "math disorder, and "math disability." The data from the retrieved studies were evaluated in a meta-analysis, and corresponding recommendations on the diagnosis and treatment of dyscalculia were jointly issued by the 20 societies and associations that participated in the creation of this guideline.

RESULTS

The diagnosis of dyscalculia should only be made if the person in question displays below-average mathematical performance when seen in the context of relevant information from the individual history, test findings, clinical examination, and further psychosocial assessment. The treatment should be directed toward the individual mathematical problem areas. The mean effect size found across all intervention trials was 0.52 (95% confidence interval [0.42; 0.62]). Treatment should be initiated early on in the primary-school years and carried out by trained specialists in an individual setting; comorbid symptoms and disorders should also receive attention. Persons with dyscalculia are at elevated risk of having dyslexia as well (odds ratio [OR]: 12.25); the same holds for attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder and for other mental disorders, both internalizing (such as anxiety and depression) and externalizing (e.g., disorders characterized by aggression and rule-breaking).

CONCLUSION

Symptom-specific interventions involving the training of specific mathematical content yield the best results. There is still a need for high-quality intervention trials and for suitable tests and learning programs for older adolescents and adults.

Rapid automatized naming in a developmental perspective between ages 4 and 10

During the last decades, rapid automatized naming (RAN) has been widely examined as a predictor of reading ability, but very few studies have examined the development of RAN itself. The present study followed children from ages 4 until 10, focusing on RAN performance in a developmental perspective. Relations within and between alphanumeric and nonalphanumeric RAN were investigated both concurrently and over time. The result shows that individual differences in RAN objects are stable between ages 4 and 10, with the most rapid growth of mean performance between ages 4 and 6. Early performance on RAN objects predicts both performance on RAN digits and RAN letters at age 8 and the further development between ages 8 and 10. Further, low-performing children at age 4 develop their performance on RAN digits and RAN letters later compared with high-performing children, and RAN digits performance reaches a plateau earlier than RAN letters performance.

Co-occurrence of Reading Disabilities and Math Disabilities: A Meta-Analysis

Despite the importance of identifying individuals with reading disabilities, existing operational definitions of reading disability do not result in reliable identification. A large part of the problem arises from measurement error when a cut-point is imposed on a continuous distribution, especially for low base-rate conditions. One way to reduce measurement error is to include additional predictors in reading disability models. The present study examined co-occurring math disability as a possible additional criterion for predicting reading disability. Meta-analysis was used to examine the probability of individuals with reading disability also having a comorbid math disability. Possible moderators including age, severity of disability, and language were examined. The main result was an average weighted odds ratio of 2.12, 95% confidence interval [1.76, 2.55], indicating that students with a math disability are just over two times more likely to also have a reading disability than those without a math disability. Implications of the results are discussed.

Predictors for grade 6 reading in children at familial risk of dyslexia

The present study investigates whether grade 6 reading outcomes, reading fluency, and reading comprehension can be predicted by grade 3 reading fluency, familial risk of dyslexia (FR), and grade 3 reading related skills: rapid automatized naming (RAN), phonological awareness (PA), and vocabulary. In a sample of 150 children, of whom 83 had a parent with dyslexia, correlation and regression analyses were performed. FR, measured on a continuous scale, was by itself related to all outcomes. However, FR did not explain any variance on top of grade 3 reading fluency. Grade 3 reading fluency strongly predicted grade 6 reading fluency and was also related to reading comprehension. RAN improved the prediction of grade 6 reading fluency, though the additional explained variance was small. Vocabulary and PA fully explained the variance that grade 3 reading fluency explained in grade 6 reading comprehension. Vocabulary explained a substantial amount of variance in grade 6 reading comprehension making it an interesting clinical target. As we used continuous measures of reading fluency and FR, our findings are not biased by distinct diagnostic criteria.

Early Cognitive Precursors of Children's Mathematics Learning Disability and Persistent Low Achievement: A 5-Year Longitudinal Study

Mathematical difficulties have been distinguished as mathematics learning disability (MLD) and persistent low achievement (LA). Based on 1,880 Finnish children who were followed from kindergarten (age 6) to fourth grade, this study examined the early risk factors for MLD and LA. Distinct groups of MLD (6.0% of the sample) and LA (25.7%) children were identified on the basis of their mathematics performance between first and fourth grades with latent class growth modeling. Impairment in the same set of cognitive skills, including language, spatial, and counting skills, was found to underlie MLD and LA. The finding highlights the importance of monitoring mathematical development across the early grades and identifying early cognitive precursors of MLD and LA for screening and intervention efforts.

Naming speed as a predictive diagnostic measure in reading and attentional problems

This study aimed to describe and compare naming speed abilities in children diagnosed with either Reading Learning Difficulties (RLD) or Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), or comorbidity for both (ADHD+RLD). To examine the explanatory power of naming speed and ADHD symptomatology in predicting group associations (while controlling for gender and age), the "Rapid Automatized Naming and Rapid Alternating Stimulus Tests" (RAN/RAS) were utilized. A sample of 101 children (age range = 5-16 years) was divided into four groups: RLD (n = 14), ADHD (n = 28), comorbid (n = 19), and control (n = 40). There were statistically significant differences in RAN/RAS results among the diagnostic groups. Moreover, discriminant analysis revealed that naming speed tasks significantly predicted reading and attentional problems, especially at earlier ages. These results demonstrate the potential usefulness of RAN/RAS in the diagnosis of reading and attentional problems, particularly if the children are aged from 5 to 9.

General and Specific Contributions of RAN to Reading and Arithmetic Fluency in First Graders: A Longitudinal Latent Variable Approach

In the present study, we opted for a longitudinal design and examined rapid automatized naming (RAN) performance from two perspectives. In a first step, we examined the structure of RAN performance from a general cognitive perspective. We investigated whether rapid naming measures (e.g., digit RAN and color RAN) reflect a mainly domain-general factor or domain-specific factors. In a second step, we examined how the best fitting RAN model was related to reading and arithmetic outcomes, assessed several months later. Finally in a third step we took a clinical perspective and investigated specific contributions of RAN measures to reading and arithmetic outcomes. While RAN has emerged as a promising predictor of reading, the relationship between RAN and arithmetic has been less examined in the past. Hundred and twenty-two first graders completed seven RAN tasks, each comprising visually familiar stimuli such as digits, vowels, consonants, dice, finger-numeral configurations, objects, and colors. Four months later the same children completed a range of reading and arithmetic tasks. From a general descriptive perspective, structural equation modeling supports a one-dimensional RAN factor in 6- to -7-year-old children. However, from a clinical perspective, our findings emphasize the specific contributions of RANs. Interestingly, alphanumeric RANs (i.e., vowel RAN) were most promising when predicting reading skills and number-specific RANs (i.e., finger-numeral configuration RAN) were most promising when predicting arithmetic fluency. The implications for clinical and educational practices will be discussed.

Shared and Unique Risk Factors Underlying Mathematical Disability and Reading and Spelling Disability

High comorbidity rates have been reported between mathematical learning disabilities (MD) and reading and spelling disabilities (RSD). Research has identified skills related to math, such as number sense (NS) and visuospatial working memory (visuospatial WM), as well as to literacy, such as phonological awareness (PA), rapid automatized naming (RAN) and verbal short-term memory (Verbal STM). In order to explain the high comorbidity rates between MD and RSD, 7–11-year-old children were assessed on a range of cognitive abilities related to literacy (PA, RAN, Verbal STM) and mathematical ability (visuospatial WM, NS). The group of children consisted of typically developing (TD) children (n = 32), children with MD (n = 26), children with RSD (n = 29), and combined MD and RSD (n = 43). It was hypothesized that, in line with the multiple deficit view on learning disorders, at least one unique predictor for both MD and RSD and a possible shared cognitive risk factor would be found to account for the comorbidity between the symptom dimensions literacy and math. Secondly, our hypotheses were that (a) a probabilistic multi-factorial risk factor model would provide a better fit to the data than a deterministic single risk factor model and (b) that a shared risk factor model would provide a better fit than the specific multi-factorial model. All our hypotheses were confirmed. NS and visuospatial WM were identified as unique cognitive predictors for MD, whereas PA and RAN were both associated with RSD. Also, a shared risk factor model with PA as a cognitive predictor for both RSD and MD fitted the data best, indicating that MD and RSD might co-occur due to a shared underlying deficit in phonological processing. Possible explanations are discussed in the context of sample selection and composition. This study shows that different cognitive factors play a role in mathematics and literacy, and that a phonological processing deficit might play a role in the occurrence of MD and RSD.