Changes in aflatoxins content during processing of pekmez as a traditional product of grape

Reusable thiol-modification Lactobacillus plantarum embedded in cellulose nanocrystals composite aerogel for efficient removal of Ochratoxin A in grape juice

Ochratoxin A (OTA) contamination in grape juice has attracted widespread concern as OTA can lead to kidney disease and cause adverse neurological effects. An effective method to remove OTA is to make use of highly adsorbent materials that are able to remove the toxic contaminant. Recently, inactivated Lactobacillus plantarum-based biosorbents have shown to be an efficient, cost-effective and environmentally friendly bioremediation method in removing toxic pollutants such as OTA. We used five chemical thiol-modification methods to improve the adsorption efficiency of OTA in grape juice. The esterification of Lactobacillus plantarum (L-Es) significantly increased the sulfhydryl contents (-SH) by 251.33 μmol/g and >90% of OTA was removed. However, the inactivated microbial adsorbent was difficult to separate after adsorption and therefore, the prepared L-Es were embedded into the cellulose nanocrystals (L-Es@CNCs). Moreover, L-Es@CNCs significantly increased the adsorption rate of OTA in grape juice samples by 88.28% with negligible effects on juice quality due to the properties of easy re-use and excellent biodegradability. This showcases its potential application for OTA removal in the grape juice industry.

Analysis of trace elements in processed products of grapes and potential health risk assessment

Raisins and grape pekmez are consumed commonly by human all over the globe. Consumption of contaminated foods may be the likely pathway of heavy metal exposure. Therefore, the objectives of the present research were to quantify trace elements concentration in raisins and grape pekmez produced from locally grown grapes in Gonabad and to assess non-carcinogenic (HQ and HI) and carcinogenic (total cancer risk, CRt) health risks caused by trace elements exposure via oral intake of these products for children, teenagers, and adults. For this purpose, a totally 30 (15 raisins and 15 grape pekmez) samples were purchased from the vineyard gardeners and examined for ten trace elements including As, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb, and Zn. The HI values signaled that the studied population consuming these products is at risk. The HQ, HI, and CRt values of the elements were in order of children > teenagers > adults. The highest cancer risk contribution was attributed to As and Ni for all the studied age groups in both raisins and grape pekmez samples. However, it is recommended that the concentration of trace elements in the soil and crops of the study area and its related health risks be regularly monitored to avoid significant health risks in the future.

Antagonism of Cyanamide-3-O-glucoside and protocatechuic acid on Aflatoxin B1-induced toxicity in zebrafish larva (Danio rerio)

The zebrafish model was used to evaluate the antioxidant properties of cyanidin-3-O-glucoside (C₃G) and its metabolite protocatechuic acid (PCA) against aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁)-induced hepatotoxicity and oxidative stress. In this study, zebrafish larvae were cultured for 3 days post fertilization (dpf) and then induced with AFB₁. After induced 4 h, 8 h, 12 h, and 24 h, 5 μg/mL C₃G/PCA was added and then co-cultured to 5 dpf, respectively. The experiments showed that C₃G/PCA suppressed AFB₁-induced zebrafish liver atrophy and delayed the absorption of the yolk sac. In addition, reactive oxygen species (ROS) and cell death were also significantly decreased by 5 μg/mL C₃G/PCA (P ˂ 0.05). C₃G/PCA significantly reduced hepatic biomarkers in the serum contents (P ˂ 0.05). Besides, glutathione (GSH) contents were significantly upregulated, and the activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT) were significantly elevated in zebrafish (P ˂ 0.05). The addition of 5 μg/mL C₃G/PCA was capable of reducing the apoptotic levels of caspase-9 and caspase-3 after 100 ng/mL AFB₁ intoxication. In conclusion, these results suggested that C₃G and its metabolite PCA might antagonize the hepatotoxicity of AFB₁, reduce oxidative damage and inhibit cell death.

Assessment of traditional clarifiers on the adsorption of ochratoxin A in Cabernet Sauvignon red wine and their kinetics

The effect of clarification on the elimination of Ochratoxin A (OTA) in wine was studied and the adsorption behavior of different clarifiers was evaluated. The results showed that OTA in wine can be effectively eliminated by gelatin with an adsorption rate of 28.59%, followed by chitosan (24.7%), bentonite (22.5%) and polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVPP) (7.6%). The clarification process was significantly affected by the clarifiers and OTA concentration. In addition, the experimental kinetic data for OTA removal were also evaluated by different equations. It displayed that the adsorption of gelatin and PVPP can be simulated by Pseudo-first order equation and Elovich equation, while that of chitosan and bentonite followed Pseudo-second order equation. The adsorption behavior of gelatin, chitosan and bentonite can fit Freundlich equation, Temkin equation and Dubinin-Radushkevich, and that of PVPP can only fitted by Langmuir equation. The thermodynamic parameters further revealed that the adsorption of OTA in wine was non-spontaneous.

Fatty acid profile and safety aspects of the edible oil prepared by artisans' at small-scale agricultural companies

The aim of this study was to analyze the fatty acid (FA) profiles and mycotoxin and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) concentrations in sea buckthorn (SB1, SB2), flaxseed (FL3, FL4, FL5), hempseed (HE6, HE7, HE8), camelina (CA9, CA10), and mustard (MU11) edible oils, prepared by artisans' by artisanal at small-scale agricultural companies in Lithuania. The dominant FAs were palmitic and oleic acids in SB; palmitic, stearic, oleic, linoleic, and α-linolenic acids in FL; palmitic, stearic, oleic, linoleic, and α-linolenic acids in HE; palmitic, oleic, linoleic, α-linolenic, eicosenoic, and erucic acids in CA; and oleic, linoleic, α-linolenic, eicosenoic, and erucic acids in MU. In SB2 oil samples, T-2 toxin and zearalenone concentrations higher than 1.0 µg/kg were found (1.7 and 3.0 µg/kg, respectively). In sample FL4, an ochratoxin A concentration higher than 1.0 µg/kg was established (1.2 µg/kg); also, in HE8 samples, 2.0 µg/kg of zearalenone was found. None of the tested edible oils exceeded the limits for PAH concentration. Finally, because of the special place of edible oils in the human diet, not only should their contamination with mycotoxins and PAHs be controlled but also their FA profile, as an important safety characteristic, must be taken into consideration to ensure higher safety standards.

In vitro and in vivo capacity of yeast-based products to bind to aflatoxins B1 and M1 in media and foodstuffs: A systematic review and meta-analysis

The aflatoxins are hepatotoxic and carcinogenic metabolites produced by Aspergillus species during growth on crop products. In this regard, a systematic review to collect the quantitative data regarding the in vitro capacity of yeasts-based products to bind to aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) and/or aflatoxin M₁ (AFM₁) was performed. After screening, 31 articles which met the inclusion criteria was included and then the pooled decontamination of aflatoxins in the defined subgroups (the type of foods, pH, contact time, temperature, yeast species, and aflatoxin type) was calculated by the random effect model (REM). The overall binding capacity (BC) of aflatoxins by yeast was 52.05% (95%CI: 49.01-55.10), while the lowest and highest aflatoxins' BC were associated with Yeast Extract Peptone (2.79%) and ruminal fluid + artificial saliva (96.21%), respectively. Regarding the contact time, temperature, pH and type of aflatoxins subgroups, the binding percentages varied from 50.83% (>300 min) to 52.66% (1-300 min), 50.71% (0-40 °C) to 88.39% (>40 °C), 43.03% (pH: 3.1-6) to 44.56% (pH: 1-3) and 59.35% (pH > 6), and 48.47% (AFB₁) to 69.03% AFM₁, respectively. The lowest and highest aflatoxins' BC was related to C. fabianii (18.45%) and Z. rouxii (86.40%), respectively. The results of this study showed that variables such as temperature, yeast, pH and aflatoxin type can be considered as the effective factors in aflatoxin decontamination.

Occurrence and Exposure Assessment of Aflatoxin B1 in Omena (Rastrineobola argentea) from Kenya

Omena (Rastrineobola argentea) is the most consumed fish species in Kenya. In this study, we assessed the occurrence of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) in Omena and the potential health risk of AFB1 to Kenyan consumers of this fish. A total of 74 samples comprising Omena intended for human consumption and fish feed production were analyzed in this study. Aflatoxin levels in Omena were determined using the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Omena intended for fish feed production was most contaminated with a mean concentration of 46.93 μg·kg−1 (2.24–115.23 μg·kg−1) compared with Omena intended for human consumption (mean = 19.42 μg·kg−1, range = 2.01–49.30 μg·kg−1). Thirty-five positive samples (83.3%) exceeded the maximum level permitted (5 μg·kg−1) by the East Africa Community standard for food used for human consumption. The exposure dose of AFB1 from consuming Omena was estimated to be 1.34 ng·kg−1 BW day−1, and margin of exposure (MoE) value for AFB1 was found to be 126.3, which indicates health risk to Omena consumers. The results suggest that the current situation of aflatoxin contamination in Omena has an adverse effect on the health of the consumers as well as the animals. Therefore, more surveys are needed to understand the scope and extent of aflatoxin contamination in Omena.

Optimization of grape juice deacidification using mixture of adsorbents: A case study of Pekmez

Grape syrup (Pekmez or Dooshab) is one of the nutritious products developed through grape processing. One of the main challenges in the industrial manufacture of this product is the utilization of traditional pekmez earth for tartaric acid adsorption. The objectives of this study were to investigate the effect of calcium carbonate, nano-silica, alumina, and activated carbon as adsorbents and also contact time in grape juice deacidification, and to determine the effects of these adsorbents on the physicochemical properties of grape juice by using the Box-Behnken statistical design. By applying different amounts of these adsorbents in grape juice, the magnitude of acidity decrement and the physicochemical properties such as acidity, pH, transmittance, the amount of reducing sugars, formalin index, and adsorption efficiency were investigated. Data analysis showed that different mixtures of adsorbents at different concentrations had significant effects on acidity and pH of the samples but no effects on the level of reducing sugars and formalin index were observed (p > .05). According to the results, the adsorption capacity with the highest calcium carbonate content (0.7 g/100 ml) was about 88%; the maximum acidity decrements of up to 92% were achieved using the treatments containing calcium carbonate, nano-silica, and activated carbon, while alumina failed to affect the acidity of the samples. Optimum conditions were obtained in 1.27, 0.21, 0.7, and 0.07 g/100 ml alumina, nano-silica, calcium carbonate, and activated carbon, respectively, resulting pH 4.3 and acidity 0.37% in grape syrup.

The influence of processing and clarifier agents on the concentrations of potentially toxic elements (PTEs) in pekmez (a grape molasses-like syrup)

The changes in some potentially toxic elements (PTEs) including lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), arsenic (As), iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), and copper (Cu) during pekmez (grape molasses-like syrup) processing and the utilization of various types of clarifiers (white soil, bentonite, and gelatin) in two levels (1.5 and 3% w/w) were analyzed. The average concentrations of Pb, Cd, As, Fe, Zn, and Cu in grape samples were measured as 0.055 ± 0.005, 0.030 ± 0.002, 0.044 ± 0.002, 2.882 ± 0.013, 2.372 ± 0.088, and 1.194 ± 0.01 μg g^-1. During pekmez production, the range of changes in Pb, Cd, As, Fe, Zn, and Cu was -43.38% to 40.25%, -55.49% to 0.23%, -76.15% to 1.80%, -74.15% to 58.47%, -40.55% to -18.12%, and -83.16% to -21.39%, respectively. The effect of the clarification process on the PTEs depended on the type and concentration of both PTE and clarifier agent used while the incorporation of gelatin resulted in a significant reduction in all of PT. Graphical abstract.

The influence of yeast level and fermentation temperature on Ochratoxin A decrement during bread making

Ochratoxin A (OTA) occurrence in cereals is a permanent challenge in human health. In recent years, some studies have focused on the role of yeasts as adsorbing tools to eliminate OTA. The aim of the current research was to study the effects of different variables including Saccharomyces cerevisiae amount and the fermentation temperature on the reduction of OTA during bread baking. For this purpose, the OTA was spiked to the flour and then the bread was prepared. OTA levels in flour, dough, and bread were measured by the high-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detector (HPLC-FD). The results revealed that yeast level and fermentation temperature had a significant effect on OTA reduction. The increase of the amount of S. cerevisiae from 1% to 2% w/w and the fermentation temperature from 25ºC to 30ºC resulted in the increment of OTA reduction from 31.17% to 59.41%. During baking, OTA reduction was 19.21%. In general, the utilization of 2% w/w S. cerevisiae and the fermentation temperature of 35 ºC could reduce considerable amount of OTA in the wheat bread.

Assessment of dietary exposure to aflatoxin B1 from corn arepas in Colombia

The aim of this research was to evaluate dietary exposure to aflatoxin B1 (AFB₁) in corn arepas in Colombia. In addition, in this study an assessment considering compliance to the maximum level of AFB₁ (4 µg kg^-1) for this food was conducted. AFB₁ concentration data in corn arepas were obtained from 168 samples. The samples were collected from factories in 16 departments in Colombia. AFB₁ was quantified by High-Performance Liquid Chromatography with a fluorescence detector. Consumption data and body weight (b.w.) were measured from the 2005 Colombian National Survey of Nutritional Status. Probabilistic estimates were made by Monte Carlo simulation of dietary exposure and margin of exposure (MOE) segmented by age group. The results showed that 27% of corn arepa samples were contaminated with AFB₁, with an average concentration of 15.1 µg kg^-1 and a maximum value of 111.1 µg kg^-1. The stochastic dietary exposure assessment showed that the age group most exposed was children between 4 and 8 years old (10.014 ng (kg b.w. day)^-1). In addition, the MOE values for all age groups were lower than 10,000, indicating a potential risk for consumers. However, in the scenario where AFB₁ concentration level complies with the maximum limit of 4 µg kg^-1 AFB₁, the level of concern could be reduced for the adult population between 14 and 64 years old because the MOE value is above 10,000.

Changes in masked forms of deoxynivalenol and their co-occurrence with culmorin in cereal-based products: A systematic review and meta-analysis

This study was aimed to evaluate the fate of D3G, 3-ADON, and 15-ADON during various processing steps (milling, fermentation, baking and cooking with water) of different cereal-based products, as well as the co-occurrence of culmorin (CUL) and its derivatives (15-Hydroxy-CUL and 5-Hydroxy-CUL. Some databases such as Science Direct, PubMed, Scopus, and Embase were screened to collect the relevant published papers between January 1983 to October 2018, and 23 articles with 319 data were included. The baking resulted in reductions in the concentration of all types of investigated masked mycotoxins, i.e., 15-ADON (-25%) > 3-ADON (-15%) > D3G (-6%). Also, rank order of CUL and its derivatives based on occurrence was CUL (70%) > 15-Hydroxy-CUL (47%) > 5-Hydroxy-CUL (15%) and their rank based on their concentration was 5-Hydroxy-CUL (99.21 µg/kg) > CUL (48.84 µg/kg) > 15-Hydroxy-CUL (9.39 µg/kg) > Hydroxy -CUL (0.06 µg/kg) > 12-Hydroxy-CUL (0.05 µg/kg) > 14-Hydroxy-CUL (0.01 µg/kg).