Quinoa bioactive protein hydrolysate produced by pancreatin enzyme- functional and antioxidant properties

Identification and core gene-mining of Weighted Gene Co-expression Network Analysis-based co-expression modules related to flood resistance in quinoa seedlings

BACKGROUND

As an emerging food crop with high nutritional value, quinoa has been favored by consumers in recent years; however, flooding, as an abiotic stress, seriously affects its growth and development. Currently, reports on the molecular mechanisms related to quinoa waterlogging stress responses are lacking; accordingly, the core genes related to these processes were explored via Weighted Gene Co-expression Network Analysis (WGCNA).

RESULTS

Based on the transcriptome data, WGCNA was used to construct a co-expression network of weighted genes associated with flooding resistance-associated physiological traits and metabolites. Here, 16 closely related co-expression modules were obtained, and 10 core genes with the highest association with the target traits were mined from the two modules. Functional annotations revealed the biological processes and metabolic pathways involved in waterlogging stress, and four candidates related to flooding resistance, specifically AP2/ERF, MYB, bHLH, and WRKY-family TFs, were also identified.

CONCLUSIONS

These results provide clues to the identification of core genes for quinoa underlying quinoa waterlogging stress responses. This could ultimately provide a theoretical foundation for breeding new quinoa varieties with flooding tolerance.

Harnessing the Potential of Quinoa: Nutritional Profiling, Bioactive Components, and Implications for Health Promotion

Quinoa, a globally cultivated "golden grain" belonging to Chenopodium in the Amaranthaceae family, is recognized for being gluten-free, with a balanced amino acid profile and multiple bioactive components, including peptides, polysaccharides, polyphenols, and saponins. The bioactive compounds extracted from quinoa offer multifaceted health benefits, including antioxidative, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, cardiovascular disease (CVD) improvement, gut microbiota regulation, and anti-cancer effects. This review aims to intricately outline quinoa's nutritional value, functional components, and physiological benefits. Importantly, we comprehensively provide conclusions on the effects and mechanisms of these quinoa-derived bioactive components on multiple cancer types, revealing the potential of quinoa seeds as promising and effective anti-cancer agents. Furthermore, the health-promoting role of quinoa in modulating gut microbiota, maintaining gut homeostasis, and protecting intestinal integrity was specifically emphasized. Finally, we provided a forward-looking description of the opportunities and challenges for the future exploration of quinoa. However, in-depth studies of molecular targets and clinical trials are warranted to fully understand the bioavailability and therapeutic application of quinoa-derived compounds, especially in cancer treatment and gut microbiota regulation. This review sheds light on the prospect of developing dietary quinoa into functional foods or drugs to prevent and manage human diseases.

Proteins from Legumes, Cereals, and Pseudo-Cereals: Composition, Modification, Bioactivities, and Applications

This review presents a comprehensive analysis of plant-based proteins from soybeans, pulses, cereals, and pseudo-cereals by examining their structural properties, modification techniques, bioactivities, and applicability in food systems. It addresses the critical need for a proper utilization strategy of proteins from various plant sources amidst the rising environmental footprint of animal protein production. The inherent composition diversity among plant proteins, their nutritional profiles, digestibility, environmental impacts, and consumer acceptance are compared. The innovative modification techniques to enhance the functional properties of plant proteins are also discussed. The review also investigates the bioactive properties of plant proteins, including their antioxidant, antimicrobial, and antitumoral activities, and their role in developing meat analogs, dairy alternatives, baked goods, and 3D-printed foods. It underscores the consideration parameters of using plant proteins as sustainable, nutritious, and functional ingredients and advocates for research to overcome sensory and functional challenges for improved consumer acceptance and marketability.

Formation mechanism of quinoa protein hydrolysate-EGCG complexes at different pH conditions and its effect on the protein hydrolysate-lipid co-oxidation in emulsions

This study aimed to investigate the interaction, structure, antioxidant, and emulsification properties of quinoa protein hydrolysate (QPH) complexes formed with (-)-epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) at pH 3.0 and 7.0. Additionally, the effect of pH conditions and EGCG complexation on protein hydrolysate-lipid co-oxidation in QPH emulsions was explored. The results indicated that QPH primarily interacted with EGCG through hydrophobic interactions and hydrogen bonds. This interaction led to alterations in the secondary structure of QPH, as well as a decrease in surface hydrophobicity and free SH content. Notably, the binding affinity between QPH and EGCG was observed to be higher at pH 7.0 compared to pH 3.0. Consequently, QPH-EGCG complexes exhibited more significant enhancement in antioxidant and emulsification properties at pH 7.0 than pH 3.0. The pH level also influenced the droplet size, ζ-potential, and interfacial composition of emulsions formed by QPH and QPH-EGCG complexes. Compared to QPH stabilized emulsions, QPH-EGCG stabilized emulsions were more capable of mitigating destabilization during storage and displayed fewer lipid oxidation products, carbonyl generation, and sulfhydryl groups and fluorescence loss, which implied better oxidative stability of the emulsions. Furthermore, the QPH-EGCG complexes formed at pH 7.0 exhibited better inhibition of protein hydrolysate-lipid co-oxidation. Overall, these findings provide valuable insights into the potential application of QPH and its complexes with EGCG in food processing systems.

Microencapsulation of Vitis vinifera grape pulp phenolic extract using maltodextrin and its application in gummy candy enrichment

Phenolic extract of Vitis vinifera grape pulp was prepared using ultrasonication at frequencies of 28, 40, and 28-40 kHz with a 1:10, 1:15, and 1:20 ratio of solid (grape pulp) to water. The 1:10 ratio and 40 kHz frequency were considered optimal conditions for the preparation of red grape pulp extract (RGPE). Then, RGPE was encapsulated within maltodextrin using a spray drying technique, and the produced powder was used in the gummy candy production. The results revealed that the phenolic content of the powder was almost constant during the storage time. The solubility of the powder decreased, whereas its moisture content increased during the 45-day storage period. The results of scanning electron microscopy showed that the produced microparticles had spherical shapes with a micron size. Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction showed that RGPE was encapsulated in the structure of maltodextrin through the formation of hydrogen bonds, considering the amorphous structure of the powder. The antioxidant properties of the microencapsulated RGPE containing gummy candy were preserved. Sensory evaluation and colorimetric values of the enriched gummy candy had acceptable results compared to the control sample. In general, microencapsulation of RGPE within maltodextrin as a carrier using the spray drying technique and its application in gummy candy enrichment could be useful.

The Protection of Quinoa Protein on the Quality of Pork Patties during Freeze-Thaw Cycles: Physicochemical Properties, Sensory Quality and Protein Oxidative

The present study investigated the impact of quinoa protein (QP) on the physicochemical properties, sensory quality, and oxidative stability of myofibrillar protein (MP) in pork patties during five freeze-thaw (F-T) cycles. It was observed that repeated F-T cycles resulted in a deterioration of pork patty quality; however, the incorporation of QP effectively mitigated these changes. Throughout the F-T cycles, the sensory quality of the QP-treated group consistently surpassed that of the control group. After five F-T cycles, the thiobarbituric acid reactive substance (TBARS) content in the control group was measured at 0.423 mg/kg, whereas it significantly decreased to 0.347 mg/kg in the QP-treated group (p < 0.05). Furthermore, QP inclusion led to a decrease in pH and an increase in water-holding capacity (WHC) within pork patties. Following five F-T cycles, Ca2+-ATPase activity exhibited a significant increase of 11.10% in the QP-treated group compared to controls (p < 0.05). Additionally, supplementation with QP resulted in elevated total sulfhydryl content and reduced carbonyl content, Schiff base content, and dityrosine content within myofibrillar proteins (MPs), indicating its inhibitory effect on MP oxidation. In particular, after five F-T cycles, total sulfhydryl content reached 58.66 nmol/mL for the QP-treated group significantly higher than that observed for controls at 43.65 nmol/mL (p < 0.05). While carbonyl content increased from 2.37 nmol/mL to 4.63 nmol/mL between the first and fifth F-T cycle for controls; it only rose from 2.15 nmol/mL to 3.47 nmol/mL in the QP-treated group. The endogenous fluorescence levels were significantly higher (p < 0.05) in the QP-treated group compared to controls. In conclusion, the addition of QP enhanced the quality of pork patties and effectively inhibited the oxidative denaturation of MP during F-T cycles.

NO enhances the adaptability to high-salt environments by regulating osmotic balance, antioxidant defense, and ion homeostasis in eelgrass based on transcriptome and metabolome analysis

Introduction

Eelgrass is a typical marine angiosperm that exhibits strong adaptability to high-salt environments. Previous studies have shown that various growth and physiological indicators were significantly affected after the nitrate reductase (NR) pathway for nitric oxide (NO) synthesis in eelgrass was blocked.

Methods

To analyze the molecular mechanism of NO on the adaptability to high-salt environment in eelgrass, we treated eelgrass with artificial seawater (control group) and artificial seawater with 1 mM/L Na2WO4 (experimental group). Based on transcriptomics and metabolomics, we explored the molecular mechanism of NO affecting the salt tolerance of eelgrass.

Results

We obtained 326, 368, and 859 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) by transcriptome sequencing in eelgrass roots, stems, and leaves, respectively. Meanwhile, we obtained 63, 52, and 36 differentially accumulated metabolites (DAMs) by metabolomics in roots, stems, and leaves, respectively. Finally, through the combined analysis of transcriptome and metabolome, we found that the NO regulatory mechanism of roots and leaves of eelgrass is similar to that of terrestrial plants, while the regulatory mechanism of stems has similar and unique features.

Discussion

NO in eelgrass roots regulates osmotic balance and antioxidant defense by affecting genes in transmembrane transport and jasmonic acid-related pathways to improve the adaptability of eelgrass to high-salt environments. NO in eelgrass leaves regulates the downstream antioxidant defense system by affecting the signal transduction of plant hormones. NO in the stems of eelgrass regulates ion homeostasis by affecting genes related to ion homeostasis to enhance the adaptability of eelgrass to high-salt environments. Differently, after the NO synthesis was inhibited, the glyoxylate and dicarboxylate metabolism, as well as the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle, was regulated by glucose metabolism as a complementary effect to cope with the high-salt environment in the stems of eelgrass. These are studies on the regulatory mechanism of NO in eelgrass, providing a theoretical basis for the study of the salt tolerance mechanism of marine plants and the improvement of terrestrial crop traits. The key genes discovered in this study can be applied to increase salt tolerance in terrestrial crops through cloning and molecular breeding methods in the future.

Impact of In Vitro Digestion on the Digestibility, Amino Acid Release, and Antioxidant Activity of Amaranth (Amaranthus cruentus L.) and Cañihua (Chenopodium pallidicaule Aellen) Proteins in Caco-2 and HepG2 Cells

This study evaluated the impact of in vitro gastrointestinal digestion on the digestibility, amino acid release, and antioxidant activity of proteins from amaranth (Amarantus cruentus L.) and cañihua (Chenopodium pallidicaule Aellen). Antioxidant activity was assessed using ORAC, ABTS, DPPH, and cellular antioxidant activity (CAA) assays in human intestinal Caco-2 and hepatic Hep-G2 cell lines. The results showed that amaranth had higher protein digestibility (79.19%) than cañihua (71.22%). In addition, intestinal digestion promoted the release of essential amino acids, such as leucine, lysine, and phenylalanine, in both protein concentrates. Concentrations of amaranth and cañihua proteins, ranging from 0.125 to 1.0 mg mL-1, were non-cytotoxic in both cell lines. At a concentration of 0.750 mg mL-1, simulated gastrointestinal digestion enhanced cellular antioxidant activity. Intestinal digest fractions containing peptides >5 kDa were the principal contributors to CAA in both cell lines. Notably, cañihua proteins exhibited high CAA, reaching values of 85.55% and 82.57% in Caco-2 and HepG2 cells, respectively, compared to amaranth proteins, which reached 84.68% in Caco-2 and 81.06% in HepG2 cells. In conclusion, both amaranth and cañihua proteins, after simulated gastrointestinal digestion, showcased high digestibility and released peptides and amino acids with potent antioxidant properties, underscoring their potential health benefits.

Effect of lactic acid bacteria co-fermentation on antioxidant activity and metabolomic profiles of a juice made from wolfberry and longan

Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) fermentation is frequently employed to improve the nutritional, functional, and sensory characteristics of foods. Our study explored the effects of co-fermentation with Lacticaseibacillus paracasei ZH8 and Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis YM313 on the physicochemical properties, antioxidant activity, and metabolomic profiles of wolfberry-longan juice (WLJ). Fermentation was carried out at 35 °C for 15 h. The results suggest that WLJ is a favorable substrate for LAB growth, reaching a total viable count exceeding 8 log CFU/mL after fermentation. LAB fermentation increased acidity, reduced the sugar content, and significantly impacted the juice color. The total phenolic and flavonoid contents of the WLJ and the antioxidant capacities based on 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), ABTS radical scavenging abilities and FRAP were significantly improved by LAB fermentation. Nontargeted metabolomics analysis suggested that the contents of small molecule substances in WLJ were considerably affected by LAB fermentation. A total of 374 differential metabolites were identified in the juice before and after fermentation, with 193 significantly upregulated metabolites and 181 siginificantly downregulated metabolites. The regulation of metabolites is important for improving the flavor and functions of juices, such as L-eucylproline, Isovitexin, Netivudine, 3-Phenyllactic acid, vanillin, and ethyl maltol, ect. This study provides a theoretical foundation for developing plant-based foods fermented with LAB.

Effect of Lactobacillus plantarum fermentation on the physicochemical properties and flavor of rice protein-carboxymethylcellulose complexes

BACKGROUND

Fermentation is known to enhance the nutritional profile and confer unique flavors to products. However, the resultant effects on stability and physicochemical properties remain unexplored.

RESULTS

This study aims to elucidate the influence of fermentation on the stability and organoleptic characteristics of a rice protein beverage stabilized by carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC). The findings revealed that the average aggregate size escalated from 507 to 870 nm, concurrently exhibiting a significant increase in surface potential. The aggregation enhancement was substantiated by evident morphological changes and confocal laser scanning microscopical (CLSM) observations. A negative correlation was discerned between the physical stability of the beverage and fermentation duration. Moreover, flavor analysis of the beverage post a 3 h fermentation period highlighted an increase in aromatic ester compounds, thereby intensifying the aroma.

CONCLUSION

The study corroborates that fermentation can detrimentally influence product stability while concurrently improving its flavor profile. By establishing a mix ratio of 10:1 for rice protein and CMC and forming a relatively stable system through electrostatic interaction at a pH of 5.4, a flavorful rice protein beverage can be derived post 3 h-fermentation process. These findings offer insights into the impact of varying fermentation durations on the stability and flavor of polysaccharide-based rice protein beverages. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry.

Modifying quinoa protein for enhanced functional properties and digestibility: A review

Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) is a pseudocereal plant that originally came from South America. The trend of consuming quinoa is propelled by its well‒balanced amino acid profile compared to that of other plants. In addition, its gluten‒free nature makes quinoa a promising diet option for celiac disease patients. Protein accounts for approximately 17% of the quinoa seed composition and quinoa protein possesses excellent quality. Quinoa protein is mainly composed of 11S globulins (37%) and 2S albumins (35%), both of which are stabilized by disulfide bonds. To date, the alkaline extraction method is the most commonly used method to extract quinoa protein. The functional properties and digestibility of quinoa protein can be improved with the help of various modification methods, and as a result, the application of quinoa protein will be extended. In this review, the extraction method, modification of functional properties and digestibility of quinoa protein are thoroughly discussed, providing insights into the application of quinoa protein in plant‒based foods.

Effect of conventional and microwave heating treatment on antioxidant activity of quinoa protein after simulated gastrointestinal digestion

Effects of microwave and traditional water bath treatment at different temperatures (70, 80, 90 ℃) on in vitro digestion rate and antioxidant activity of digestion products of quinoa protein were investigated. The results indicated microwave treatment at 70 ℃ produced the highest quinoa protein digestion rate and the strongest antioxidant activities of its digestion products (P < 0.05), which was further verified by the results of free amino, sulfhydryl group, gel electrophoresis, amino acid profiles and the molecular weight distribution of the digestion products. However, limited exposure of active groups induced by water bath treatment might decrease the susceptibility of digestive enzymes and subsequently lower the digestibility and antioxidant activities of quinoa protein. The results suggested that a moderate microwave treatment could be used as a potential way to enhance the in vitro digestion rate of quinoa protein, as well as increase the antioxidant activities of its digestion products.

Red Quinoa Hydrolysates with Antioxidant Properties Improve Cardiovascular Health in Spontaneously Hypertensive Rats

In recent years, quinoa has been postulated as an emerging crop for the production of functional foods. Quinoa has been used to obtain plant protein hydrolysates with in vitro biological activity. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the beneficial effect of red quinoa hydrolysate (QrH) on oxidative stress and cardiovascular health in an in vivo experimental model of hypertension (HTN) in the spontaneously hypertensive rat (SHR). The oral administration of QrH at 1000 mg/kg/day (QrHH) showed a significant reduction in SBP from baseline (-9.8 ± 4.5 mm Hg; p < 0.05) in SHR. The mechanical stimulation thresholds did not change during the study QrH groups, whereas in the case of SHR control and SHR vitamin C, a significant reduction was observed (p < 0.05). The SHR QrHH exhibited higher antioxidant capacity in the kidney than the other experimental groups (p < 0.05). The SHR QrHH group showed an increase in reduced glutathione levels in the liver compared to the SHR control group (p < 0.05). In relation to lipid peroxidation, SHR QrHH exhibited a significant decrease in plasma, kidney and heart malondialdehyde (MDA) values compared to the SHR control group (p < 0.05). The results obtained revealed the in vivo antioxidant effect of QrH and its ability to ameliorate HTN and its associated complications.

Fermented Whey Ewe's Milk-Based Fruit Smoothies: Bio-Recycling and Enrichment of Phenolic Compounds and Improvement of Protein Digestibility and Antioxidant Activity

This study aimed to recycle whey milk by-products (protein source) in fruit smoothies (phenolic compounds source) through started-assisted fermentation and delivering sustainable and healthy food formulations capable of providing nutrients that are unavailable due to an unbalanced diet or incorrect eating habits. Five lactic acid bacteria strains were selected as best starters for smoothie production based on the complementarity of pro-technological (kinetics of growth and acidification) traits, exopolysaccharides and phenolics release, and antioxidant activity enhancement. Compared to raw whey milk-based fruit smoothies (Raw_WFS), fermentation led to distinct profiles of sugars (glucose, fructose, mannitol, and sucrose), organic acids (lactic acid and acetic acid), ascorbic acid, phenolic compounds (gallic acid, 3-hydroxybenzoic acid, chlorogenic acid, hydrocaffeic acid, quercetin, epicatechin, procyanidin B2, and ellagic acid) and especially anthocyanins (cyanidin, delphinidin, malvidin, peonidin, petunidin 3-glucoside). Protein and phenolics interaction enhanced the release of anthocyanins, notably under the action of Lactiplantibacillus plantarum. The same bacterial strains outperformed other species in terms of protein digestibility and quality. With variations among starters culture, bio-converted metabolites were most likely responsible for the increase antioxidant scavenging capacity (DPPH, ABTS, and lipid peroxidation) and the modifications in organoleptic properties (aroma and flavor).

Stability and bioactivity of peptides in food matrices based on processing conditions

Bioactive peptides (BPs) generated from food proteins can serve therapeutic purposes against degenerative and cardiovascular diseases such as inflammation, diabetes, and cancer. There are numerous reports on the in vitro, animal, and human studies of BPs, but not as much information on the stability and bioactivity of these peptides when incorporated in food matrices. The effects of heat and non-heat processing of the food products, and storage on the bioactivity of the BPs, are also lacking. To this end, we describe the production of BPs in this review, followed by the food processing conditions that affect their storage bioactivity in the food matrices. As this area of research is open for industrial innovation, we conclude that novel analytical methods targeting the interactions of BPs with other components in food matrices would be greatly significant while elucidating their overall bioactivity before, during and after processing.

Exploration of the Nutritional and Functional Properties of Underutilized Grains as an Alternative Source for the Research of Food-Derived Bioactive Peptides

The estimated increase in world population will lead to a deterioration in global food security, aggravated in developing countries by hidden hunger resulting from protein deficiency. To reduce or avoid this crisis, a dietary shift towards the consumption of sustainable, nutrient-rich, and calorically efficient food products has been recommended by the FAO and WHO. Plant proteins derived from grains and seeds provide nutritionally balanced diets, improve health status, reduce poverty, enhance food security, and contain several functional compounds. In this review, the current evidence on the nutritional and functional properties of underutilized grains is summarized, focusing on their incorporation into functional foods and the role of their proteins as novel source of bioactive peptides with health benefits.

Interactions between Hazelnut (Corylus avellana L.) Protein and Phenolics and In Vitro Gastrointestinal Digestibility

In this study, we investigated the formation of protein–phenolic complexes from dephenolized hazelnut meal protein isolates (dHPI) and hazelnut skin phenolic extracts (HSE) and their effects on the bioaccessibility of both hazelnut proteins and phenolics. The dHPI–HSE complexes were of considerable size and were dependent on HSE concentration due to aggregation. Although catechin was the main component of HSE, it did not cause aggregation, except for a slight rise in particle size. According to fluorescence quenching, the hazelnut protein–phenolic extract complex had a linear Stern–Volmer plot expressing static quenching between 0–0.5 mM concentration; the interaction was mainly dependent on hydrogen bonding and van der Waals forces (ΔH < 0 and ΔS < 0), and the reaction was spontaneous (ΔG < 0). According to Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy results, higher phenolic extract concentration caused an increase in irregular structures in hazelnut protein, while the lowest catechin and phenolic concentration altered the regular structure. Skin extracts did not alter the digestibility of dephenolized proteins, but dephenolization reduced the degree of hydrolysis by pancreatin. The formation of the protein–phenolic complex had a beneficial effect on the bioaccessibility of hazelnut skin phenols, predominantly those on the galloylated form of the catechins, such as gallocatechin gallate and epigallocatechin gallate. Thus, the bioaccessibility and antioxidant activity analysis results showed that protein–phenolic complexes obtained from hazelnut meal and skin may promote the transition of phenolic compounds from the gastrointestinal tract without degradation.

Effect of carboxymethyl konjac glucomannan coating on the stability and colon-targeted delivery performance of fucoxanthin-loaded gliadin nanoparticles

Fucoxanthin (FUC) is a hydrophobic carotenoid that has a protective effect on the colon. To exert the beneficial effects of FUC in the colon and expand its application in functional food, FUC was encapsulated in carboxymethyl konjac glucomannan (CMKGM)-coated gliadin nanoparticles (Gli-CMKGM NPs) in this paper. Gli-CMKGM NPs were prepared at pH 5.0 with Gli/CMKGM mass ratio of 1:1. The formation of Gli-CMKGM NPs was associated with hydrogen bonding, hydrophobic interactions and electrostatic attractions. Additionally, Gli-CMKGM NPs exhibited good stability to pH, salt, heating and storage. The results showed that FUC had been successfully encapsulated in Gli-CMKGM NPs, and the encapsulation efficiency of FUC-Gli-CMKGM NPs was significantly higher than that of uncoated FUC-Gli NPs. FUC-Gli-CMKGM NPs had a nano-spherical structure, and embedded FUC in Gli-CMKGM NPs improved their stabilities to photodegradation and thermal degradation. Furthermore, in vitro release and in vivo organ distribution studies showed that FUC-Gli-CMKGM NPs had an excellent colon targeting function. Overall, our findings illustrated the promise of CMKGM-coated Gli NPs for constructing targeted delivery systems for FUC.

Are quinoa proteins a promising alternative to be applied in plant-based emulsion gel formulation?

Emulsion gels are structured emulsion systems that behave as soft solid-like materials. Emulsion gels are commonly used in food-product design both as fat replacers and as delivery carriers of bioactive compounds. Different plant-derived proteins like soy, chia, and oat have been used in emulsion gel formulation to substitute fat in meat products and to deliver some vegetable dyes or extracts. Quinoa protein isolates have been scarcely applied in emulsion gel formulation although they seem to be a promising alternative as emulsion stabilizers. Quinoa protein isolates have a high protein content with a well-balanced amino acid profile and show good emulsifying and gelling capabilities. Unlike quinoa starch, quinoa protein isolates do not require any chemical modification before being used. The present article reviews the state of the art in food emulsion gels stabilized with vegetable proteins and highlights the potential uses of quinoa proteins in emulsion gel formulation.

Engineering of Liposome Structure to Enhance Physicochemical Properties of Spirulina plantensis Protein Hydrolysate: Stability during Spray-Drying

Encapsulating hydrolysates in liposomes can be an effective way to improve their stability and bioactivity. In this study, Spirulina hydrolysate was successfully encapsulated into nanoliposomes composed of different stabilizers (cholesterol or γ-oryzanol), and the synthesized liposomes were finally coated with chitosan biopolymer. The synthesized formulations were fully characterized and their antioxidant activity evaluated using different methods. Then, stabilization of coated nanoliposomes (chitosomes) by spray-drying within the maltodextrin matrix was investigated. A small mean diameter and homogeneous size distribution with high encapsulation efficiency were found in all the formulations, while liposomes stabilized with γ-oryzanol and coated with chitosan showed the highest physical stability over time and preserved approximately 90% of their initial antioxidant capacity. Spray-dried powder could preserve all characteristics of peptide-loaded chitosomes. Thus, spray-dried hydrolysate-containing chitosomes could be considered as a functional food ingredient for the human diet.