Comparative assessment of compositional constituents and antioxidant effects in ginseng sprouts (Panax ginseng) through aging and fermentation processes

Examining the Alterations in Metabolite Constituents and Antioxidant Properties in Mountain-Cultivated Ginseng (Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer) Organs during a Two-Month Maturation Period

The current research was the first to prove the existence of fluctuations in the metabolite constituents and antioxidant properties in different organs (leaves, stems, and roots) of the mountain-cultivated ginseng (MCG) plant during a two-month maturation period. Four metabolites, including fatty acids, amino acids, ginsenosides, and phenolic phytochemicals, exhibited considerable differences in organs and maturation times with the following order: leaves > stems > roots. The predominant metabolite contents were found in leaves, with fatty acid (1057.9 mg/100 g) on 31 May, amino acid (1989.2 mg/100 g) on 13 July, ginsenosides (88.7 mg/g) on 31 May, and phenolic phytochemical (638.3 μg/g) on 31 May. Interestingly, ginsenoside content in leaves were highest, with 84.8 → 88.7 → 82.2 → 78.3 mg/g. Specifically, ginsenosides Re, Rd, and F2 showed abundant content ranging from 19.1 to 16.9 mg/g, 8.5 to 14.8 mg/g, and 9.5 to 13.1 mg/g, respectively. Phenolic phytochemicals exhibited remarkable differences in organs compared to maturation periods, with the highest total phenolic content and total flavonoid content recorded at 9.48 GAE and 1.30 RE mg/g in leaves on 31 May. The antioxidant capacities on radical, FRAP, and DNA protection differed significantly, with leaves on 31 May exhibiting the highest values: 88.4% (DPPH), 89.5% (ABTS), 0.84 OD593 nm (FRAP) at 500 μg/mL, and 100% DNA protection at 50 μg/mL. Furthermore, principal cluster analysis revealed metabolite variability as follows: ginsenoside (83.3%) > amino acid (71.8%) > phenolic phytochemical (61.1%) > fatty acid (58.8%). A clustering heatmap highlighted significant changes in metabolite components under the maturation times for each organ. Our findings suggest that MCG leaves on 31 May may be a potential source for developing nutraceuticals, offering highly beneficial components and strong antioxidants.

Comparison of microbial diversity and metabolites on household and commercial doenjang

In this study, the microbial diversity, free amino acid (FAA), and biological activities of household doenjang (HDJ) from four different regions and commercial doenjang (CDJ) four manufacturers were analyzed. And volatile flavor compound (VFC) and isoflavone profiles were analyzed using gas chromatograph-mass spectrometer (GC-MS) and high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), respectively. The major bacterial genus in 1HDJ and 2HDJ was Bacillus (97.5%), while in 3HDJ and 4HDJ, it was Enterobacter (47.5%) and Pseudomonas (80%), respectively. Tetragenococcus was the main bacterial genus of CDJ. The Zygosaccharomyces genus among yeast was comparatively high in all samples. In all samples, glutamic acid predominated among the FAAs, and the 3-methyl butanal, benzeneacetaldehyde, and diallyl disulphide were major VFCs. CDJ contained higher levels of isoflavone-glycoside and total phenolics. Except for 3HDJ and 4CDJ, the isoflavone-aglycone and total flavonoid contents were higher in HDJ. The correlation between bacterial genus and metabolited of doenjang showed that Tetragenococcus was closely related to glutamic acid, Bacillus was related to aglycones and ammonia, and Pseudomonas was highly related to isovaleric acid. While, correlation between yeast genus and metabolited of doenjang confirmed that Candida, Hanseniaspora, and Saccharomyces were related with furfural, benzeneacetaldehyde, and 3-methyl butanal, respectively. The results of this study can be utilized as basic data for the industrialization and development of doenjang.

Improved Antioxidative, Anti-Inflammatory, and Antimelanogenic Effects of Fermented Hydroponic Ginseng with Bacillus Strains

Compared with traditionally cultured ginseng, hydroponic ginseng (HG) contains more remarkable bioactive compounds, which are known to exert diverse functional effects. This study aimed to enhance the multifunctional effects, including the antioxidative, anti-inflammatory, and antimelanogenic effects, exhibited by fermented HG with Bacillus strains, such as Bacillus subtilis KU43, Bacillus subtilis KU201, Bacillus polyfermenticus SCD, and Bacillus polyfermenticus KU3, at 37 °C for 48 h. After fermentation by B. subtilis KU201, the antioxidant activity, determined using ABTS and FRAP assays, increased from 25.30% to 51.34% and from 132.10% to 236.27%, respectively, accompanied by the enhancement of the phenolic compounds and flavonoids. The inflammation induced in RAW 264.7 cells by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) was ameliorated with fermented HG, which regulated the nitric oxide (NO), prostaglandin E₂ (PGE₂), and proinflammatory markers (tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, and interleukin (IL)-1β and IL-6). The treatment with fermented HG inhibited the melanin accumulation in B16F10 cells induced by α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone (α-MSH) by controlling the concentrations of melanin synthesis and tyrosinase activity. These results indicate that the HG exhibited stronger antioxidative, anti-inflammatory, and antimelanogenic effects after fermentation. Consequently, HG fermented by Bacillus strains can potentially be used as an ingredient in cosmetological and pharmaceutical applications.

Comprehensive Comparison of Chemical Composition and Antioxidant Activity of Panax ginseng Sprouts by Different Cultivation Systems in a Plant Factory

In this study, the primary (such as amino acids, fatty acids, and minerals) and secondary (including ginsenosides, phenolic acids, and flavonols) metabolites and antioxidant effects of Panax ginseng sprouts (PGSs) by different cultivation systems, such as soil–substrate cultivation (SSC) and deep-water cultivation (DWC), in a plant factory has been observed. There was no significant difference in the total fatty acid (FA) contents. Particularly, the major FAs of PGSs were palmitic acid (207.4 mg/100 g) of saturated FAs and linoleic acid (397.6 mg/100 g) and α-linolenic acid (222.6 mg/100 g) of unsaturated FAs in the SSC system. The values of total amino acids were all higher in SSC than in DWC. In the case of ginsenosides, the total protopanaxtriol product was 30.88 mg/g in SSC, while the total protopanaxdiol product was 34.83 mg/g in DWC. In particular, the values of total phenolic acids and total flavonols were 133.36 and 388.19 ug/g, respectively, and SSC had a higher content than DWC. In conclusion, the SSC system was shown to be higher in nutritional constituents and antioxidant activities in soil cultivation, suggesting that PGS with SSC has a positive effect on the quality of PGS in a plant factory.