The senescence-associated secretory phenotype: Fueling a wound that never heals

The role of SLC7A11 in diabetic wound healing: novel insights and new therapeutic strategies

Diabetic wounds are a severe complication of diabetes, characterized by persistent, non-healing ulcers due to disrupted wound-healing mechanisms in a hyperglycemic environment. Key factors in the pathogenesis of these chronic wounds include unresolved inflammation and antioxidant defense imbalances. The cystine/glutamate antiporter SLC7A11 (xCT) is crucial for cystine import, glutathione production, and antioxidant protection, positioning it as a vital regulator of diabetic wound healing. Recent studies underscore the role of SLC7A11 in modulating immune responses and oxidative stress in diabetic wounds. Moreover, SLC7A11 influences critical processes such as insulin secretion and the mTOR signaling pathway, both of which are implicated in delayed wound healing. This review explores the mechanisms regulating SLC7A11 and its impact on immune response, antioxidant defenses, insulin secretion, and mTOR pathways in diabetic wounds. Additionally, we highlight the current advancements in targeting SLC7A11 for treating related diseases and conceptualize its potential applications and value in diabetic wound treatment strategies, along with the challenges encountered in this context.

Modelling the spatiotemporal dynamics of senescent cells in wound healing, chronic wounds, and fibrosis

Cellular senescence is known to drive age-related pathology through the senescence-associated secretory phenotype (SASP). However, it also plays important physiological roles such as cancer suppression, embryogenesis and wound healing. Wound healing is a tightly regulated process which when disrupted results in conditions such as fibrosis and chronic wounds. Senescent cells appear during the proliferation phase of the healing process where the SASP is involved in maintaining tissue homeostasis after damage. Interestingly, SASP composition and functionality was recently found to be temporally regulated, with distinct SASP profiles involved: a fibrogenic, followed by a fibrolytic SASP, which could have important implications for the role of senescent cells in wound healing. Given the number of factors at play a full understanding requires addressing the multiple levels of complexity, pertaining to the various cell behaviours, individually followed by investigating the interactions and influence each of these elements have on each other and the system as a whole. Here, a systems biology approach was adopted whereby a multi-scale model of wound healing that includes the dynamics of senescent cell behaviour and corresponding SASP composition within the wound microenvironment was developed. The model was built using the software CompuCell3D, which is based on a Cellular Potts modelling framework. We used an existing body of data on healthy wound healing to calibrate the model and validation was done on known disease conditions. The model provides understanding of the spatiotemporal dynamics of different senescent cell phenotypes and the roles they play within the wound healing process. The model also shows how an overall disruption of tissue-level coordination due to age-related changes results in different disease states including fibrosis and chronic wounds. Further specific data to increase model confidence could be used to explore senolytic treatments in wound disorders.

A gene for all seasons: The evolutionary consequences of HIF-1 in carcinogenesis, tumor growth and metastasis

Oxygen played a pivotal role in the evolution of multicellularity during the Cambrian Explosion. Not surprisingly, responses to fluctuating oxygen concentrations are integral to the evolution of cancer-a disease characterized by the breakdown of multicellularity. Poorly organized tumor vasculature results in chaotic patterns of blood flow characterized by large spatial and temporal variations in intra-tumoral oxygen concentrations. Hypoxia-inducible growth factor (HIF-1) plays a pivotal role in enabling cells to adapt, metabolize, and proliferate in low oxygen conditions. HIF-1 is often constitutively activated in cancers, underscoring its importance in cancer progression. Here, we argue that the phenotypic changes mediated by HIF-1, in addition to adapting the cancer cells to their local environment, also "pre-adapt" them for proliferation at distant, metastatic sites. HIF-1-mediated adaptations include a metabolic shift towards anaerobic respiration or glycolysis, activation of cell survival mechanisms like phenotypic plasticity and epigenetic reprogramming, and formation of tumor vasculature through angiogenesis. Hypoxia induced epigenetic reprogramming can trigger epithelial to mesenchymal transition in cancer cells-the first step in the metastatic cascade. Highly glycolytic cells facilitate local invasion by acidifying the tumor microenvironment. New blood vessels, formed due to angiogenesis, provide cancer cells a conduit to the circulatory system. Moreover, survival mechanisms acquired by cancer cells in the primary site allow them to remodel tissue at the metastatic site generating tumor promoting microenvironment. Thus, hypoxia in the primary tumor promoted adaptations conducive to all stages of the metastatic cascade from the initial escape entry into a blood vessel, intravascular survival, extravasation into distant tissues, and establishment of secondary tumors.

Nanotechnology strategies to address challenges in topical and cellular delivery of siRNAs in skin disease therapy

Gene therapy is one of the most advanced therapies in current medicine. In particular, interference RNA-based therapy by small interfering RNA (siRNA) has gained attention in recent years as it is a highly versatile, selective and specific therapy. In dermatological conditions, topical delivery of siRNA offers numerous therapeutic advantages, mainly by inhibiting the expression of target transcripts directly in the skin. However, crossing the stratum corneum and overcoming intracellular barriers is an inherent challenge. Substantial efforts by scientists have moved towards the use of multimodal and multifunctional nanoparticles to overcome these barriers and achieve greater bioavailability in their site of action, the cytoplasm. In this review the most innovative strategies based on nanoparticle and physical methods are presented, as well as the design principles and the main factors that contribute to the performance of these systems. This review also highlights the synergistic contributions of medicine, nanotechnology, and molecular biology to advancing translational research into siRNA-based therapeutics for skin diseases.

Cellular senescence and wound healing in aged and diabetic skin

Cellular senescence is a biological mechanism that prevents abnormal cell proliferation during tissue repair, and it is often accompanied by the secretion of various factors, such as cytokines and chemokines, known as the senescence-associated secretory phenotype (SASP). SASP-mediated cell-to-cell communication promotes tissue repair, regeneration, and development. However, senescent cells can accumulate abnormally at injury sites, leading to excessive inflammation, tissue dysfunction, and intractable wounds. The effects of cellular senescence on skin wound healing can be both beneficial and detrimental, depending on the condition. Here, we reviewed the functional differences in cellular senescence that emerge during wound healing, chronic inflammation, and skin aging. We also review the latest mechanisms of wound healing in the epidermis, dermis, and subcutaneous fat, with a focus on cellular senescence, chronic inflammation, and tissue regeneration. Finally, we discuss the potential clinical applications of promoting and inhibiting cellular senescence to maximize benefits and minimize detrimental effects.

Emerging roles of exosomes in oral diseases progression

Oral diseases, such as periodontitis, salivary gland diseases, and oral cancers, significantly challenge health conditions due to their detrimental effects on patient's digestive functions, pronunciation, and esthetic demands. Delayed diagnosis and non-targeted treatment profoundly influence patients' prognosis and quality of life. The exploration of innovative approaches for early detection and precise treatment represents a promising frontier in oral medicine. Exosomes, which are characterized as nanometer-sized extracellular vesicles, are secreted by virtually all types of cells. As the research continues, the complex roles of these intracellular-derived extracellular vesicles in biological processes have gradually unfolded. Exosomes have attracted attention as valuable diagnostic and therapeutic tools for their ability to transfer abundant biological cargos and their intricate involvement in multiple cellular functions. In this review, we provide an overview of the recent applications of exosomes within the field of oral diseases, focusing on inflammation-related bone diseases and oral squamous cell carcinomas. We characterize the exosome alterations and demonstrate their potential applications as biomarkers for early diagnosis, highlighting their roles as indicators in multiple oral diseases. We also summarize the promising applications of exosomes in targeted therapy and proposed future directions for the use of exosomes in clinical treatment.

Identification of hub genes and pathways associated with cellular senescence in diabetic foot ulcers via comprehensive transcriptome analysis

This research aimed to find important genes and pathways related to cellular senescence (CS) in diabetic foot ulcers (DFU) and to estimate the possible pathways through which CS affects diabetic foot healing. The GSE80178 dataset was acquired from the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database, containing six DFU and three diabetic foot skin (DFS) samples. The limma package was used to identify differentially expressed genes (DEGs). At the same time, DEGs associated with CS (CS-DEGs) were found using the CellAge database. Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) enrichment analyses were conducted on the CS-DEGs. A protein-protein interaction (PPI) network was built using the String database, and the cytoHubba plug-in within Cytoscape helped identify hub genes. Lastly, the miRNA-TF-mRNA regulatory network for these hub genes was established. In total, 66 CS-DEGs were obtained. These genes mainly focus on CS, Kaposi sarcoma-associated herpesvirus infection and Toll-like receptor signalling pathway. Eight hub genes were identified to regulate cell senescence in DFU, including TP53, SRC, SIRT1, CCND1, EZH2, CXCL8, AR and CDK4. According to miRNA-TF-mRNA regulatory network, hsa-mir-132-3p/SIRT1/EZH2 axis is involved in senescence cell accumulation in DFU.

Enzyme-responsive nanospheres target senescent cells for diabetic wound healing by employing chemodynamic therapy

Evidence indicates that prolonged low-level inflammation and elevated-glucose-induced oxidative stress in diabetic wounds can accelerate senescence. The accumulation of senescent cells, in turn, inhibits cellular proliferation and migration, aggravating the inflammatory response and oxidative stress, ultimately impeding wound healing. In this study, we exploited the heightened lysosomal β-galactosidase activity detected in senescent cells to develop an innovative drug delivery system by encapsulating Fe3O4 with galactose-modified poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) (F@GP). We found that F@GP can selectively release Fe3O4 into senescent cells, inducing ferroptosis via the Fenton reaction in the presence of elevated intracellular H2O2 levels. This showed that F@GP administration can serve as a chemodynamic therapy to eliminate senescent cells and promote cell proliferation. Furthermore, the F@GP drug delivery system gradually released iron ions into the diabetic wound tissues, enhancing the attenuation of cellular senescence, stimulating cell proliferation, promoting re-epithelialization, and accelerating the healing of diabetic wounds in mice. Our groundbreaking approach unveiled the specific targeting of senescence by F@GP, demonstrating its profound effect on promoting the healing of diabetic wounds. This discovery underscores the therapeutic potential of F@GP in effectively addressing challenging cases of wound repair. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: The development of galactose-modified PLGA nanoparticles loaded with Fe3O4 (F@GP) represents a significant therapeutic approach for the treatment of diabetic wounds. These nanoparticles exhibit remarkable potential in selectively targeting senescent cells, which accumulate in diabetic wound tissue, through an enzyme-responsive mechanism. By employing chemodynamic therapy, F@GP nanoparticles effectively eliminate senescent cells by releasing iron ions that mediate the Fenton reaction. This targeted approach holds great promise for promoting diabetic wound healing by selectively eliminating senescent cells, which play a crucial role in impairing the wound healing process. The innovative utilization of F@GP nanoparticles as a therapeutic intervention offers a novel and potentially transformative strategy for addressing the challenges associated with diabetic wound healing.

Blood-brain barrier dysfunction promotes astrocyte senescence through albumin-induced TGFβ signaling activation

Blood-brain barrier dysfunction (BBBD) and accumulation of senescent astrocytes occur during brain aging and contribute to neuroinflammation and disease. Here, we explored the relationship between these two age-related events, hypothesizing that chronic hippocampal exposure to the blood-borne protein serum albumin could induce stress-induced premature senescence (SIPS) in astrocytes via transforming growth factor beta 1 (TGFβ) signaling. We found that 1 week of albumin exposure significantly increased TGFβ signaling and senescence marker expression in cultured rat hippocampal astrocytes. These changes were preventable by pharmacological inhibition of the type I TGFβ receptor (TGFβR) ALK5. To study these effects in vivo, we utilized an animal model of BBBD in which albumin was continuously infused into the lateral ventricles of adult mice. Consistent with our in vitro results, 1 week of albumin infusion significantly increased TGFβ signaling activation and the burden of senescent astrocytes in hippocampal tissue. Pharmacological inhibition of ALK5 TGFβR or conditional genetic knockdown of astrocytic TGFβR prior to albumin infusion was sufficient to prevent albumin-induced astrocyte senescence. Together, these results establish a link between TGFβ signaling activation and astrocyte senescence and suggest that prolonged exposure to serum albumin due to BBBD can trigger these phenotypic changes.

Small extracellular vesicles from mesenchymal stem cells: A potential Weapon for chronic non-healing wound treatment

Chronic non-healing wounds have posed a severe threat to patients mentally and physically. Behavior dysregulation of remaining cells at wound sites is recognized as the chief culprit to destroy healing process and hinders wound healing. Therefore, regulating and restoring normal cellular behavior is the core of chronic non-healing wound treatment. In recent years, the therapy with mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) has become a promising option for chronic wound healing and the efficacy has increasingly been attributed to their exocrine functions. Small extracellular vesicles derived from MSCs (MSC-sEVs) are reported to benefit almost all stages of wound healing by regulating the cellular behavior to participate in the process of inflammatory response, angiogenesis, re-epithelization, and scarless healing. Here, we describe the characteristics of MSC-sEVs and discuss their therapeutic potential in chronic wound treatment. Additionally, we also provide an overview of the application avenues of MSC-sEVs in wound treatment. Finally, we summarize strategies for large-scale production and engineering of MSC-sEVs. This review may possibly provide meaningful guidance for chronic wound treatment with MSC-sEVs.

A simplified method for monitoring cytokines in wound fluid

Cytokines in wound fluid are used as surrogates for wound healing in clinical research. The current methods used to collect and process wound fluid are noninvasive but not optimal. The aim of this prospective study was to evaluate a method (NovaSwab) by which wound fluid is collected by a surface swab and eluted in a physiological buffer for subsequent cytokine analysis. Wound fluid from 12 patients with leg ulcers was assessed by NovaSwab at the start (Day 0) and at the end of a 23-h collection period of wound fluid retained by foam oblates beneath an occlusive film dressing (Day 1). GM-CSF, IL-1α, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8, PDGF-AA, TNF-α and VEGF levels were measured by multiplex and electrochemiluminescence assays. IL-1α (2.4×), IL-1β (2.0×) and IL-8 (1.8×) levels increased from Day 0 to Day 1 as detected by NovaSwab, indicating local production of these polypeptides in the wounds. On Day 1, the NovaSwab method yielded higher levels of IL-1α (4.0×), IL-1β (2.7×) and IL-6 (2.7×), and 35% lower levels of VEGF than those in wound fluid accumulated for 23 h in foam oblates (on average, 5 ml of wound fluid). In vitro experiments showed that the investigated cytokines in cell-free wound fluid were recovered in a quantitative manner by the NovaSwab method. We conclude that the method presented here is a promising research tool to study the kinetics of soluble cytokines over the course of wound healing. More studies are needed to determine the interobserver variation and reproducibility of the NovaSwab method.

Pathological implication of CaMKII in NF-κB pathway and SASP during cardiomyocytes senescence

Senescence-associated secretory phenotype (SASP) could be developed during heart ageing. But the role of SASP in cardiomyocytes senescence and its molecular mechanism remains undetermined. In this study, we observed elevated Ca²⁺/calmodulin -dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII) activation in both physiological aged heart and premature senescent cardiomyocytes. Notably, we confirmed the gradual SASP development induced by NF-κB activation in long-term cultured cardiomyocytes. Transgenic inhibition of CaMKII in mice (AC3-I mice) alleviated the NF-κB activation, chronic sterile inflammation and ageing-associated cardiomyopathy. Correspondingly, pharmacological inhibition of CaMKII with KN93 mitigated SASP and hindered cardiomyocytes senescence. Meanwhile, increased NF-κB activation and exacerbated cardiomyocytes senescence were observed with transgenic CaMKII activation. Collectively, our results indicated that the increased CaMKII activation accompanying ageing could aggravate NF-κB activation and SASP development and facilitate cardiomyocytes senescence and heart ageing.

Mesenchymal Stem/Stromal Cells in Cancer: from Initiation to Metastasis

Mesenchymal stem/stromal cells (MSCs) exist in many tissues and have pleiotropic potential to self-renew and differentiate into multiple cell types. Recent research in tumor biology has focused on their low immunogenicity and tumorhoming properties. MSCs promote cancer initiation, progression, and metastasis through several different mechanisms, including epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), angiogenesis, and through their interaction with immune cells. In this review, we discuss the recent advances in our understanding of the pathogenic role of MSCs in regulating tumor initiation, progression, and metastasis, thus providing a strong rationale for targeting MSCs in cancer therapy.

Cellular Senescence in Aging, Tissue Repair, and Regeneration

SUMMARY

Society and our healthcare system are facing unprecedented challenges due to the expansion of the older population. As plastic surgeons, we can improve care of our older patients through understanding the mechanisms of aging that inevitably impact their outcomes and well-being. One of the major hallmarks of aging, cellular senescence, has recently become the focus of vigorous research in academia and industry. Senescent cells, which are metabolically active but in a state of stable cell cycle arrest, are implicated in causing aging and numerous age-related diseases. Further characterization of the biology of senescence revealed that it can be both detrimental and beneficial to organisms depending on tissue context and senescence chronicity. Here, we review the role of cellular senescence in aging, wound healing, tissue regeneration, and other domains relevant to plastic surgery. We also review the current state of research on therapeutics that modulate senescence to improve conditions of aging.

Involvement of Inflammation and Its Resolution in Disease and Therapeutics

Inflammation plays a critical role in the response to and survival from injuries and/or infections. It occurs in two phases: initiation and resolution; however, when these events do not resolve and persist over time, the inflammatory response becomes chronic, prompting diseases that affect several systems and organs, such as the vasculature and the skin. Here, we reviewed inflammation that occurs in selected infectious and sterile pathologies. Thus, the immune processes induced by bacterial sepsis as well as T. cruzi and SARS-CoV-2 infections are shown. In addition, vaccine adjuvants as well as atherosclerosis are revised as examples of sterile-mediated inflammation. An example of the consequences of a lack of inflammation resolution is given through the revision of wound healing and chronic wounds. Then, we revised the resolution of the latter through advanced therapies represented by cell therapy and tissue engineering approaches, showing how they contribute to control chronic inflammation and therefore wound healing. Finally, new pharmacological insights into the management of chronic inflammation addressing the resolution of inflammation based on pro-resolving mediators, such as lipoxin, maresin, and resolvins, examining their biosynthesis, biological properties, and pharmacokinetic and pharmaceuticals limitations, are given. We conclude that resolution pharmacology and advanced therapies are promising tools to restore the inflammation homeostasis.

SCA® Slows the Decline of Functional Parameters Associated with Senescence in Skin Cells

The identification of compounds and natural ingredients that can counteract tissue stress and dysfunction induced by aging in skin cells is warranted. Here, we investigated the activity of the secretion from the snail Cryptomphalus aspersa (SCA^®), an active compound with well-established beneficial effects on skin integrity and aging. To determinate its senescence-regulation mechanisms, we used a model where damage was induced by hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂). The results showed that SCA^® positively modulated factors involved in cell senescence such as β-galactosidase and cell morphology, secretory efficiency markers (SIRT1/6 and carboxymethyl-lysine), and metabolic and redox homeostasis (mTOR and ROS). This study demonstrated a novel compound that is activity-modulating, reduces cell senescence, and increases longevity to maintain skin homeostasis and functionality.

Cytokines and Venous Leg Ulcer Healing-A Systematic Review

Venous leg ulcers (VLUs) are the most common type of leg ulcers with a significant socioeconomic burden due to slow healing. Cytokines may be involved in the pathogenesis of VLUs. In this systematic review, our objective was to investigate the association between cytokine levels, including growth factors, with the healing of VLUs. PubMed, Embase, Web of Science and Cochrane Library were searched from their inception to August 2021. We retrieved 28 articles investigating 38 different cytokines in 790 patients. Cytokines were most commonly investigated in wound fluid and less frequently in biopsies and serum. The studies were judged as having a moderate to high risk of bias, and the results were often inconsistent and sometimes conflicting. A meta-analysis was not performed due to clinical and methodological heterogeneities. We found weak evidence for elevated IL-1α, IL-6, IL-8, TNF-α and VEGF levels in non-healing VLUs, an elevation that declined with healing. TGF-β1 levels tended to increase with VLU healing. Other cytokines warranting further investigations include EGF, FGF-2, GM-CSF, IL-1β, IL-1Ra and PDGF-AA/PDGF-BB. We conclude that non-healing VLUs may be associated with an elevation of a palette of pro-inflammatory cytokines, possibly reflecting activated innate immunity in these wounds. There is a paucity of reliable longitudinal studies monitoring the dynamic changes in cytokine levels during wound healing.

Link between senescence and cell fate: Senescence-associated secretory phenotype (SASP) and its effects on stem cell fate transition

Senescence is a form of durable cell cycle arrest elicited in response to a wide range of stimuli. Senescent cells remain metabolically active and secrete a variety of factors collectively termed senescence-associated secretory phenotype (SASP). SASP is highly pleiotropic and can impact numerous biological processes in which it has both beneficial and deleterious roles. The underlying mechanisms by which SASP exerts its pleiotropic influence remain largely unknown. SASP serves as an environmental factor, which regulates stem cell differentiation and alters its routine. The latter can potentially be accomplished through dedifferentiation, transdifferentiation, or reprogramming. Behavioral changes that cells undergo when exposed to SASP are involved in several senescence-associated physiological and pathological phenomena. These findings provide clues for identifying possible interventions to reduce the deleterious effects without interfering in the beneficial outcomes. Here, we discuss the multifaced effects of SASP and the changes occurring in cellular states upon exposure to SASP factors.

Blood-Brain Barrier Dysfunction and Astrocyte Senescence as Reciprocal Drivers of Neuropathology in Aging

As the most abundant cell types in the brain, astrocytes form a tissue-wide signaling network that is responsible for maintaining brain homeostasis and regulating various brain activities. Here, we review some of the essential functions that astrocytes perform in supporting neurons, modulating the immune response, and regulating and maintaining the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Given their importance in brain health, it follows that astrocyte dysfunction has detrimental effects. Indeed, dysfunctional astrocytes are implicated in age-related neuropathology and participate in the onset and progression of neurodegenerative diseases. Here, we review two mechanisms by which astrocytes mediate neuropathology in the aging brain. First, age-associated blood-brain barrier dysfunction (BBBD) causes the hyperactivation of TGFβ signaling in astrocytes, which elicits a pro-inflammatory and epileptogenic phenotype. Over time, BBBD-associated astrocyte dysfunction results in hippocampal and cortical neural hyperexcitability and cognitive deficits. Second, senescent astrocytes accumulate in the brain with age and exhibit a decreased functional capacity and the secretion of senescent-associated secretory phenotype (SASP) factors, which contribute to neuroinflammation and neurotoxicity. Both BBBD and senescence progressively increase during aging and are associated with increased risk of neurodegenerative disease, but the relationship between the two has not yet been established. Thus, we discuss the potential relationship between BBBD, TGFβ hyperactivation, and senescence with respect to astrocytes in the context of aging and disease and identify future areas of investigation in the field.

Loss of atm in Zebrafish as a Model of Ataxia-Telangiectasia Syndrome

Ataxia-telangiectasia mutated (ATM) is a key DNA damage signaling kinase that is mutated in humans with ataxia-telangiectasia (A-T) syndrome. This syndrome is characterized by neurodegeneration, immune abnormality, cancer predisposition, and premature aging. To better understand the function of ATM in vivo, we engineered a viable zebrafish model with a mutated atm gene. Zebrafish atm loss-of-function mutants show characteristic features of A-T-like motor disturbance, including coordination disorders, immunodeficiency, and tumorigenesis. The immunological disorder of atm homozygote fish is linked to the developmental blockade of hematopoiesis, which occurs at the adulthood stage and results in a decrease in infection defense but, with little effect on wound healing. Malignant neoplasms found in atm mutant fish were mainly nerve sheath tumors and myeloid leukemia, which rarely occur in A-T patients or Atm-/- mice. These results underscore the importance of atm during immune cell development. This zebrafish A-T model opens up a pathway to an improved understanding of the molecular basis of tumorigenesis in A-T and the cellular role of atm.

Dynamic Spatiotemporal Expression Pattern of the Senescence-Associated Factor p16Ink4a in Development and Aging

A plethora of factors have been attributed to underly aging, including oxidative stress, telomere shortening and cellular senescence. Several studies have shown a significant role of the cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor p16ink4a in senescence and aging. However, its expression in development has been less well documented. Therefore, to further clarify a potential role of p16 in development and aging, we conducted a developmental expression study of p16, as well as of p19ARF and p21, and investigated their expression on the RNA level in brain, heart, liver, and kidney of mice at embryonic, postnatal, adult, and old ages. P16 expression was further assessed on the protein level by immunohistochemistry. Expression of p16 was highly dynamic in all organs in embryonic and postnatal stages and increased dramatically in old mice. Expression of p19 and p21 was less variable and increased to a moderate extent at old age. In addition, we observed a predominant expression of p16 mRNA and protein in liver endothelial cells versus non-endothelial cells of old mice, which suggests a functional role specifically in liver endothelium of old subjects. Thus, p16 dynamic spatiotemporal expression might implicate p16 in developmental and physiological processes in addition to its well-known function in the build-up of senescence.

Transplantation of decellularised human amniotic membranes seeded with mesenchymal stem cell-educated macrophages into animal models

The reconstruction of chronic skin wounds remains a public health challenge in dermatology. Precisely controlling and monitoring the wound-healing process should result in enhanced outcomes for the patient. Cell-based therapies have shown great potential in medicine due to their immunomodulatory and healing properties. Herein, we produced activated macrophages by treating circulating monocytes with mesenchymal stem cell (MSC) supernatant. We also demonstrated the critical role of activated macrophages transplantation using amniotic membranes in accelerating wound healing in an animal wound model. The activated macrophages not only exhibited immunomodulatory cytokines like transforming growth factorβ (TGFβ) and interleukin 10 (and IL10) secretion but also showed attachment and proliferation ability on the amniotic membrane scaffold. Moreover, MSCs supernatant-treated cells also displayed significant ARG1, CD206, and IL 10 genes expression. Inspired by the in vitro results, we examined the in vivo therapeutic efficacy of the activated macrophage transplantation using an acellular amniotic membrane carrier in a full-thickness cutaneous wound model. The wound healing rate was significant in the group treated with macrophages generated via mesenchymal cell therapy seeded human amniotic membrane. There was less scarring in the wound sites after placing cell-scaffold constructs in the wound sites in the animal models. Overall, macrophages stimulated with mesenchymal cells' supernatant exhibited improved healing processes in incisional wounds by decreasing the inflammatory phase, increasing angiogenesis, and reducing scar tissue development.