Gestation length variation in domesticated horses and its relation to breed and body size diversity

Closure of the neuro-central synchondrosis and other physes in foal cervical spines

BACKGROUND

The neuro-central synchondrosis (NCS) is a physis responsible for the growth of the dorsal third of the vertebral body and neural arches. When the NCS of pigs is tethered to model scoliosis, stenosis also ensues. It is necessary to describe the NCS for future evaluation of its potential role in equine spinal cord compression and ataxia (wobbler syndrome).

OBJECTIVES

To describe the NCS, including when it and other physes closed in computed tomographic (CT) scans of the cervical spine of foals, due to its potential role in vertebral stenosis.

STUDY DESIGN

Post-mortem cohort study.

METHODS

The cervical spine of 35 cases, comprising both sexes and miscellaneous breeds from 153 gestational days to 438 days old, was examined with CT and physes scored from 6: fully open to 0: fully closed. The dorsal physis, physis of the dens and mid-NCS were scored separately, whereas the cranial and caudal NCS portions were scored together with the respective cranial and caudal vertebral body physes.

RESULTS

The NCS was a pair of thin physes located in a predominantly dorsal plane between the vertebral body and neural arches. The mid-NCS was closed in C1 from 115 days of age, and in C2-C7 from 38 days of age. The dorsal physis closed later than the NCS in C1, and earlier than the NCS in C2-C7. The dens physis was closed from 227 days of age. The cranial and caudal physes were closing, but not closed from different ages in the different vertebrae of the oldest cases.

MAIN LIMITATIONS

Hospital population.

CONCLUSIONS

The NCS was a thin physis that contributed mainly to height-wise growth, but also width- and length-wise growth of the vertebral body and neural arches. The mid-NCS was closed in all cervical vertebrae from 115 days of age. The NCS warrants further investigation in the pathogenesis of vertebral stenosis.

Nutritional composition, fatty acids profile and immunoglobulin G concentrations of mare milk of the Chilean Corralero horse breed

The objective of the present study was to characterize the nutritional composition, fatty acid profile, and IgG concentration of the milk produced by Chilean Corralero horse (CCH) mares from breeding farms located in southern Chile. Forty-five milk samples were collected from three of the biggest breeding farms (coded as A, B and C) specialized in breeding and selection of CCH in Chile (15 mares sampled per farm). Farms differed in days in milk (DIM). A negative association between DIM and ash, milk protein, milk solids, saturated fatty acids (SFA), and gross energy (GE) was found, whereas DIM had a positive association with monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA). Milk components like fat, lactose, and energy content varied independently of DIM, indicating other influencing factors such as farm-specific management practices. Offspring sex moderately affected GE content, with milk from mares bearing female offspring having higher GE. Macronutrient profiles of the CCH mares' milk were within the reported range for other horse breeds but tended to have lower fat and total solids. Compared to cow and human milk, horse milk is richer in lactose and lower in fat and protein. Immunoglobulin G concentration was only affected by the farm (B > A) which could be linked to dietary factors and pasture composition rather than maternal parity or other known factors. Overall, CCH mare milk has notable nutritional characteristics, with implications for both foal health and potential human consumption, posing less cardiac risk compared to cow's milk as indicated by lower atherogenic and thrombogenic indices.

On-field Gross Morphology Evaluation of Dromedary Camel (Camelus dromedarius) Fetal Membranes

The dromedary camel (Camelus dromedarius) fetal membranes, commonly referred to as "the placenta", are epitheliochorial, diffuse, and microcotyledonary, similarly to the mare's placenta. The evaluation of the placenta is an essential component of the neonatal evaluation in the equine species. However, post-partum or post-abortion placental assessment in dromedary camels is unfortunately too frequently neglected and, to the best of the authors' knowledge, the dromedary camel species lacks a comprehensive description of the normal placenta's gross morphology. In order to facilitate its on-field evaluation, the current study describes the macroscopic features of the placenta of the dromedary camel after full-term pregnancy and spontaneous parturition.

Age-specific effects of density and weather on body condition and birth rates in a large herbivore, the Przewalski's horse

Reproduction in young females can show a particularly sensitive response to environmental challenges, although empirical support from individual-based long-term studies is scarce. Based on a 20-year data set from a free-roaming Przewalski's horse population (Equus ferus przewalskii), we studied effects of large-herbivore density (horses + cattle) and weather conditions experienced during different life stages on females' annual birth rates. Foaling probability was very low in 2-year-olds, reaching maximum values in 5 to 10-year-olds, followed by a decrease in older females indicating reproductive senescence. Mother's previous reproductive investment affected her current reproduction; young and old mothers (as opposed to middle-aged ones), which had nursed a foal for at least 60 days during the previous year, reproduced with a lower probability. Foaling probability and body condition of young females were lower when large-herbivore density was high. Reproduction was also influenced by interactive weather effects during different life stages. Low late-summer precipitation during the females' year of birth was associated with a pronounced decrease in foaling probability in response to harsh late-winter temperatures prior to the mating season. In turn, increased amounts of late-summer rain during this early age together with more late-summer rain during the females' current pregnancy led to an increased reproductive probability in 2-3-year-olds. These results were corroborated by the ameliorating effects of late-summer rain on body condition in such females. In conclusion, our findings highlight the interactive importance of weather conditions experienced during early life, and of density and weather during current pregnancy on foaling probability, particularly in young females.

Comparative analysis of gestation in three rhinoceros species (Diceros bicornis; Ceratotherium simum; Rhinoceros unicornis)

This comparative analysis evaluated endocrine profiles and gestation length data of captive pregnant black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis), white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum), and greater one-horned (GOH) rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis). Hormone profiles were collected over three decades as part of pregnancy diagnoses. After the third month of gestation, the luteo-placental shift in progesterone production in pregnant rhinoceroses causes a significant increase in the concentration of faecal progesterone metabolites. We defined a laboratory-specific value of 1000 ng/g faeces as a threshold for incipient feto-placental progesterone production. Using this value allowed a comparison between species and revealed significant individual differences within a species. The mean ± SEM gestation days for reaching the 1000 ng/g faeces threshold were 89.5 ± 2.9 (range 56-138 days; n = 39) in black, 96.0 ± 2.6 (58-138; n = 39) in white, and 117.8 ± 5.3 (74-173; n = 19) in GOH rhinoceroses. For the calculations of gestation length, we complemented our results from three decades of reproductive monitoring with data from the literature, resulting in about 70 values for each species. Gestation length in the black, the white and the GOH rhinoceros was 460.6 ± 1.5 (range: 436 - 486), 503.8 ± 1.3 (range: 480 - 525) and 480.5 ± 1.1 (range: 453 - 505) days, respectively. Daylight length significantly affected gestation length, while the sex of offspring had no effect. On average, pregnancies with parturitions in spring and summer were one week shorter than those in autumn and winter. Although rhinoceroses are non-seasonal breeders, most parturitions in captivity occur in autumn and winter. We also analysed preconception endocrine profiles in the white rhinoceros. Conceptions in this species occurred after oestrous cycles of approximately 35 days (n = 18), 70 days (n = 3), 15 days (n = 1), after periods of ovarian inactivity (n = 5), and during a foal heat within one month after stillbirth parturition (n = 1). In conclusion, this study provides a comprehensive overview of gestational parameters in three rhinoceros species.

Equid nutritional physiology and behavior: an evolutionary perspective

Like other members of the even-toed ungulates (the perissodactyls), equids once had a higher species diversity in the fossil record than they have today. This is generally explained in comparison to the enormous diversity of bovid ruminants. Theories on putative competitive disadvantages of equids include the use of a single toe as opposed to two toes per leg, the lack of a specific brain cooling (and hence water-saving) mechanism, longer gestation periods that delay reproductive output, and in particular digestive physiology. To date, there is no empirical support for the theory that equids fare better on low-quality forage than ruminants. In contrast to the traditional juxtaposition of hindgut and foregut fermenters, we suggest that it is more insightful to sketch the evolution of equid and ruminant digestive physiology as a case of convergence: both evolved a particularly high chewing efficacy in their respective groups, which facilitates comparatively high feed and hence energy intakes. But because the ruminant system, less based on tooth anatomy but more on a forestomach sorting mechanism, is more effective, equids depend more on high feed intakes than ruminants and may well be more susceptible to feed shortages. Arguably, the most under-emphasized characteristic of equids may be that in contrast to many other herbivores including ruminants and coprophageous hindgut fermenters, equids do not use the microbial biomass growing in their gastrointestinal tract. Equids display behavioral and morphophysiological adaptations to high feed intakes, and their cranial anatomy that facilitates the cropping of forage while performing grinding chewing at the same time might be unique. Rather than looking for explanations how equids are better adapted to their present niches than other organisms, considering them remnants of a different morphophysiological solution may be more appropriate.

Teeth out of proportion: Smaller horse and cattle breeds have comparatively larger teeth

There are different descriptions of allometric relationships between important components of the mammalian skull. Craniofacial evolutionary allometry describes a pattern of increasing facial cranium in larger skulls. Another body of literature describes disproportionately larger teeth in smaller species or specimens, matching anecdotal observations with dental problems in dwarf breeds whose teeth appear "too large for their skulls." We test the scaling of tooth row length with body size and skull length in a data set comprising 114 domestic horses (representing 40 breeds) and in another data set of 316 domestic cattle (of >60 breeds). We demonstrate that smaller skulls have a relatively longer tooth row in both horses and cattle; larger specimens have relatively shorter tooth rows. Whereas in horses, larger skulls have a relatively longer diastema, the distance of the mesial maxillary premolar to the premaxilla was proportional to cranium length in cattle. While the reasons for these patterns remain to be detected, they support the hypothesis that tooth size might be less "evolvable," in terms of time required for changes, than body size. The pattern may affect (i) the selective breeding for dwarf breeds by setting minimum constraints for skull size, as described previously for domestic horses with the same data set; (ii) the susceptibility of small breeds for dental problems; and (iii) differences in chewing efficiency between breeds of different sizes. The findings support the existing concept that scaling of tooth to body size across taxa becomes more isometric the longer these taxa are separated in evolutionary time.

Genetic and Environmental Factors Influencing Gestation Length in Lusitano Horses

Breeding and parturition records collected over a period of 35 years in the Alter Real stud of Lusitano horses were used to calculate gestation length (GL). The 1027 gestations by 209 mares mated to 60 stallions had a mean GL of 338.1 ± 9.26 days. The mixed model analysis of variance indicated that the sex of the foal and inbreeding of the dam and foal had no significant effect on GL (P > .05). On the other hand, GL increased linearly with mare age, with an estimated regression coefficient of 0.155 ± 0.069 days/year (P < .05). Year and conception month affected GL (P < .05), with longer gestations observed when breeding occurred between January and April, followed by a decline of about 5 and 10 days in GL of mares bred in May and in June-July, respectively. Important differences were observed between stallions (P < .05), with most stallions resulting in a distribution of GL in an interval of ±5 days. The inclusion of the mare as a random effect in the mixed model resulted in an estimated repeatability of GL of 0.427, indicating that mares tend to be regular in having long or short gestations across their lifetime. Variance components estimated in an Animal Model resulted in heritability estimates of 0.39 for maternal genetic effects and 0.19 for direct genetic effects, with no association between the two components. Overall, the mare seems to have the major genetic influence on GL in Lusitano horses, but environmental factors, such as month of conception and also the age of the mare, have a noticeable effect.

Animal and environmental factors associated with gestation length in the endangered Old Kladruber horse

Little is known about factors influencing gestation length in heavier types of horses. The objective was to assess the effects of the weight and age of mares, weight and sex of foals, lactation, month and year of conception, month of foaling, stallion and mare on gestation length in the endangered Old Kladruber breed that once served as a heavy coach horse for ceremonies of the Imperial Court in Vienna. The study was performed at the stud farm Slatinany, Czech Republic and reports data from foaling seasons between 2001 and 2018. A total of 649 gestations were included in the study. Gestation in mares weighing 680 kg and more was 1.9 days shorter than in those weighing up to 639 kg (P < 0.0001). Gestation in lactating mares was 3.9 days shorter than in non-lactating mares (P < 0.0001). Gestation was longest in mares conceiving in March (343.9 ± 0.60 days); thereafter it gradually shortened, with the shortest (P < 0.0001) in mares conceiving in July (334.9 ± 0.90 days). Gestation length in mares increased (P < 0.0001) from February foaling (340.4 ± 0.73 days) to March foaling (343.6 ± 0.55 days), and then decreased (P < 0.0001) up to the end of the breeding season in June (336.7 ± 0.92 days). Year of conception had an effect on GL (P < 0.02). Gestation in mares carrying male foals was 2.0 days longer than in those carrying female foals (P < 0.01). Gestation in mares delivering foals weighing 70 kg and more was 1.0 days longer than in those delivering foals weighing up to 60 kg (P < 0.01). Mare's age had no effect on gestation length. In conclusion, gestation length was associated with the weight of mares and foals, lactation, month and year of conception, month of foaling, and sex of foals.

Bone histology provides insights into the life history mechanisms underlying dwarfing in hipparionins

Size shifts may be a by-product of alterations in life history traits driven by natural selection. Although this approach has been proposed for islands, it has not yet been explored in continental faunas. The trends towards size decrease experienced by some hipparionins constitute a good case study for the application of a life history framework to understand the size shifts on the continent. Here, we analysed bone microstructure to reconstruct the growth of some different-sized hipparionins from Greece and Spain. The two dwarfed lineages studied show different growth strategies. The Greek hipparions ceased growth early at a small size thus advancing maturity, whilst the slower-growing Spanish hipparion matured later at a small size. Based on predictive life history models, we suggest that high adult mortality was the likely selective force behind early maturity and associated size decrease in the Greek lineage. Conversely, we infer that resource limitation accompanied by high juvenile mortality triggered decrease in growth rate and a relative late maturity in the Spanish lineage. Our results provide evidence that different selective pressures can precipitate different changes in life history that lead to similar size shifts.

Similar rates of morphological evolution in domesticated and wild pigs and dogs

Background

Whether the great morphological disparity of domesticated forms is the result of uniformly higher evolutionary rates compared to the wild populations is debated. We provide new data on changes of skull dimensions within historical time periods in wild and domesticated dogs and pigs to test if domestication might lead to an accelerated tempo of evolution in comparison to the wild conspecifics. Darwins and Haldanes were used to quantify evolutionary rates. Comparisons with evolutionary rates in other species and concerning other characteristics from the literature were conducted.

Results

Newly gathered and literature data show that most skull dimensions do not change faster in domesticated breeds than in wild populations, although it is well known that there is extensive artificial selection on skull shape in some dog breeds. Evolutionary rates among domesticated forms and traits (e.g., production traits in pigs, and racing speed in some horses and greyhounds) might vary greatly with species and breeding aim.

Conclusions

Our study shows that evolutionary rates in domestication are not in any event faster than those in the wild, although they are often perceived as such given the vast changes that appear in a relatively short period of time. This may imply that evolution under natural conditions – i.e., without human intervention – is not as slow as previously described, for example by Darwin. On the other hand, our results illustrate how diverse domestication is in tempo, mode, and processes involved.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12983-018-0265-x) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Geographical Origin, Delayed Implantation, and Induced Ovulation Explain Reproductive Seasonality in the Carnivora

Patterns of reproductive seasonality in the Carnivora are difficult to study comparatively, due to limited numbers of species for which information is available. Long-term databases of captive populations could overcome this difficulty. We apply a categorical description and a quantitative high-resolution measure (birth peak breadth, the number of days in which 80% of all births occur) based on daily observations in captivity to characterize the degree of reproductive seasonality in the Carnivora for 114 species with on average 1357 births per species. We find that the majority of species retained the birth seasonality displayed in the wild. Latitude of natural origin, delayed implantation, and induced ovulation were the main factors influencing reproductive seasonality. Most species were short-day breeders, but there was no evidence of an absolute photoperiodic signal for the timing of mating or conception. The length of the gestation period (corrected for body mass) generally decreased with birth seasonality but increased in species with delayed implantation. Birth seasons become shorter with increasing latitude of geographical origin, likely because the length of the favorable season declines with increasing latitude, exerting a strong selective pressure on fitting both the reproductive cycle and the interval offspring needs for growth following the termination of parental care into the short time window of optimal environmental conditions. Species with induced ovulation exhibit a less seasonal reproductive pattern, potentially because mates do not have to meet during a short time window of a fixed ovulation. Seasonal species of Carnivora shorten their gestation period so reproduction can occur during the short time window of optimal environmental conditions. Alternatively, other Carnivora species lengthen their gestation periods in order to bridge long winters. Interestingly, this occurs not by decelerating intrauterine growth but by delaying implantation.

Placental structure and function in different breeds in horses

Ponies and sometimes draft horses are often used as experimental models for horses although size and metabolic parameters are known to vary between horse breeds. So far, there is little information about differences of placental structure and no information about differences of placental function between breeds. The aim of this study was to investigate differences in placental size, structure and function at birth in relation to foal size and weight in ponies, Saddlebred and draft horses. Pony, Saddlebred and draft horse pregnancies were obtained by artificial insemination over 2 successive breeding seasons. Foals and total fetal membranes (TFM) were weighed and placentas measured for surface area at term. Placentas were sampled above the umbilical cord insertion. Surface density and volume fraction of the different cellular components of the placenta were measured on histological sections using stereology. The expression of genes involved in growth and development, nutrient transfer and vascularization was compared between groups. Foals and TFM were lighter at birth in ponies than Saddlebred horses, and both were lighter compared to draft horses. The surface density and volume fraction of microcotyledonary vessels was increased in pony compared to Saddlebred placentas. The relative expression of genes involved in growth and development was different between breeds and increased with maternal, fetal and placental weight. Primiparous dams produced lighter foals and smaller placentas, associated with a decreased volume fraction of microcotyledonary vessels and genes involved in growth and development and vascularization. Foal sex had little effect on placental structure and function as the expression of only one gene differed according to sex, with EGFR expression being decreased in placentas of females compared to males. In conclusion, foal and placental weight, as well as placental expression of genes involved in growth and development were correlated with maternal size. Placental structure also differed between breeds, with a stronger difference between ponies and both breeds of horses.