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Everest DJ, Green C, Dastjerdi A, Davies H, Cripps R, McKinney C, Podgornik G, Stinson M, O'Hare S, Sapsford B, Mill A, Van der Waal Z, Robinson N, Trotter S, Shuttleworth CM. Opportunistic viral surveillance confirms the ongoing disease threat grey squirrels pose to sympatric red squirrel populations in the UK. Vet Rec 2023; 192:e2834. [PMID: 37024300 DOI: 10.1002/vetr.2834] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2022] [Revised: 12/29/2022] [Accepted: 03/01/2023] [Indexed: 04/08/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Red Squirrels United was a UK landscape-scale grey squirrel management programme undertaken between 2016 and 2020. METHODS A total of 11034 grey squirrels were removed by culling, with 1506 necropsied and 1405 suitable for adenovirus (AdV) or squirrelpox virus (SQPV) quantitative PCR (qPCR) analysis. Spleen, lip or hair were extracted, and DNA was isolated, with samples tested in duplicate by qPCR. RESULTS Of 1378 tissue samples, 43% were positive for AdV and 10% for SQPV. Of 1031 hair samples, 11% were positive for AdV and 10% for SQPV. Overall, 762 of 1405 (54%) animals were positive for one or both viruses. LIMITATIONS Ad hoc sampling was undertaken from limited geographical areas but provided the only dataset from that period, instead of extrapolating from historical data. CONCLUSIONS The grey squirrel is an asymptomatic reservoir host for AdV and SQPV. Interspecific infection transmission potential is demonstrated. Grey squirrel management by culling is essential for mainland red squirrel viability until other suitable management tools are available.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Chalin Green
- Animal and Plant Health Agency-Weybridge, Addlestone, UK
| | | | - Hannah Davies
- Animal and Plant Health Agency-Weybridge, Addlestone, UK
| | - Rachel Cripps
- Lancashire Wildlife Trust, Seaforth Nature Reserve, Liverpool, UK
| | | | | | | | - Simon O'Hare
- Northumberland Wildlife Trust, Newcastle Upon Tyne, UK
| | | | - Aileen Mill
- Centre for Wildlife Management, School of Biology, Newcastle University, Newcastle Upon Tyne, UK
| | - Zelda Van der Waal
- Centre for Wildlife Management, School of Biology, Newcastle University, Newcastle Upon Tyne, UK
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2
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Shuttleworth CM, Everest DJ, Stidworthy MF, Halliwell EC, Clews-Roberts R, Paine V, Bamber C, Mason J. Adenovirus infection in red squirrels. Vet Rec 2021; 189:444-445. [PMID: 34860406 DOI: 10.1002/vetr.1246] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - D J Everest
- APHA Weybridge, New Haw, Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB
| | - M F Stidworthy
- International Zoo Veterinary Group, Station House, Parkwood Street, Keighley, West Yorkshire, BD21 4NQ
| | | | | | - V Paine
- Clocaenog Red Squirrel Trust, Beaumaris, Anglesey, LL58 8TR
| | - C Bamber
- Clocaenog Red Squirrel Trust, Beaumaris, Anglesey, LL58 8TR
| | - J Mason
- Natural Sciences, Bangor University, Bangor, LL57 2UW
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3
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Hardgrove E, Zimmerman DM, von Fricken ME, Deem S. A scoping review of rodent-borne pathogen presence, exposure, and transmission at zoological institutions. Prev Vet Med 2021; 193:105345. [PMID: 34090722 DOI: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2021.105345] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2020] [Revised: 04/03/2021] [Accepted: 04/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Rodents are one of the major taxa most likely to carry zoonotic diseases, harboring more than 85 unique zoonotic pathogens. While the significance of rodents' capacity to carry and transmit disease has been characterized in urban settings, the zoo environment is particularly unique given the overlap of collection, free-living, and feeder rodents as well as non-rodent collection animals, staff, and visitors. ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA This scoping review examines reports of rodent-borne pathogen detection or transmission in zoo settings extracted from the literature. Papers were included in the final analysis if there was evidence of presence or exposure to a pathogen in a rodent at a zoological institution. SOURCES OF EVIDENCE Publications were included from PubMed, CAB Abstracts and Biological Abstracts searched in August 2019. CHARTING METHODS Data extracted from publications on pathogen presence/exposure included publication identifiers, study identifiers, infectious agent identifiers, rodent identifiers, and non-rodent collection animal identifiers. Extraction from papers with evidence of disease transmission included number of rodents involved in transmission, non-rodent collection animal species and numbers, and job title of humans involved, diagnostic tests performed, and clinical outcomes. RESULTS Aggregate literature examined included 207 publications presenting evidence of pathogen presence and/or exposure in rodents across 43 countries in over 140 zoological institutions. A total of 143 infectious agent genera were identified, comprising 14 viral genera, 31 bacterial genera, 83 parasitic genera, and 15 fungal genera. Of these infectious agents, over 75 % were potentially zoonotic. The most common disease-causing agent genera identified were Leptospira, Toxoplasma, Salmonella, and Yersinia. Additional screening for evidence of pathogen transmission across species yielded 30 publications, indicating an area for future investigation to better inform surveillance and management priorities in order to reduce exposure, infection, and transmission. CONCLUSIONS Analyzing the breadth of rodent species and pathogens identified at zoos highlights the unique opportunity zoos have to be at the forefront of the early detection and identification of novel hosts and geographic ranges of rodent-borne pathogens with high impact on both endangered species and people. The overlap of these populations at zoos exemplifies the importance of considering One Health when prioritizing surveillance and risk mitigation of rodent reservoirs at zoos.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily Hardgrove
- Virginia-Maryland Regional College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, 24060, USA.
| | - Dawn M Zimmerman
- Global Health Program, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, 3001 Connecticut Ave NW, Washington, DC, 20008, USA; Department of Epidemiology of Microbial Disease, Yale School of Public Health, New Haven, CT, 06520, USA.
| | - Michael E von Fricken
- Department of Global and Community Health, George Mason University, 4400 University Dr, Fairfax, VA, 22030, USA.
| | - Sharon Deem
- Institute for Conservation Medicine, Saint Louis Zoo, One Government Drive, St. Louis, MO, 63110, USA.
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4
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Disease monitoring and surveillance: case studies in the applied conservation of fragmented red squirrel (Sciurus vulgaris) populations in England and Wales. Mamm Biol 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s42991-021-00157-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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5
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Fingland K, Ward SJ, Bates AJ, Bremner‐Harrison S. A systematic review into the suitability of urban refugia for the Eurasian red squirrel
Sciurus vulgaris. Mamm Rev 2021. [DOI: 10.1111/mam.12264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Kathryn Fingland
- School of Animal Rural and Environmental Sciences Nottingham Trent University Southwell NottinghamshireNG25 0QFUK
| | - Samantha J. Ward
- School of Animal Rural and Environmental Sciences Nottingham Trent University Southwell NottinghamshireNG25 0QFUK
| | - Adam J. Bates
- School of Animal Rural and Environmental Sciences Nottingham Trent University Southwell NottinghamshireNG25 0QFUK
| | - Samantha Bremner‐Harrison
- School of Animal Rural and Environmental Sciences Nottingham Trent University Southwell NottinghamshireNG25 0QFUK
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6
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Côrte-Real JV, Lopes AM, Rebelo H, Paulo Lopes J, Amorim F, Pita R, Correia J, Melo P, Beja P, José Esteves P, Abrantes J. Adenovirus emergence in a red squirrel (Sciurus vulgaris) in Iberian Peninsula. Transbound Emerg Dis 2020; 67:2300-2306. [PMID: 32418319 DOI: 10.1111/tbed.13627] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2020] [Revised: 04/15/2020] [Accepted: 05/12/2020] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Adenoviruses (AdV) are pathogens capable of infecting animals and humans leading to a wide spectrum of diseases. They have a widespread geographical dissemination and infect several species, including red squirrels (Sciurus vulgaris). In the Iberian Peninsula, there are no reports of infection of red squirrels by AdV. In this study, we report for the first time the detection of squirrel AdV in a red squirrel trapped in central Portugal. The phylogenetic analysis showed that the sequences obtained for the hexon and the penton base genes were similar to the Korean squirrel AdV strain and strongly divergent from the strains present in red squirrels in Europe. These findings indicate the emergence of a new strain circulating in Europe and raise concerns regarding the conservation of the red squirrel.
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Affiliation(s)
- João Vasco Côrte-Real
- CIBIO-InBIO, Research Center in Biodiversity and Genetic Resources, University of Porto, Vairão, Portugal
| | - Ana Margarida Lopes
- CIBIO-InBIO, Research Center in Biodiversity and Genetic Resources, University of Porto, Vairão, Portugal.,UMIB/UP - Unit for Multidisciplinary Research in Biomedicine, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Hugo Rebelo
- CIBIO-InBIO, Research Center in Biodiversity and Genetic Resources, University of Porto, Vairão, Portugal.,CIBIO-InBIO, Research Center in Biodiversity and Genetic Resources, Institute of Agronomy, University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - João Paulo Lopes
- Parques de Sintra - Monte da Lua S.A., Parque de Monserrate, Sintra, Portugal
| | - Francisco Amorim
- CIBIO-InBIO, Research Center in Biodiversity and Genetic Resources, University of Porto, Vairão, Portugal.,Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Ricardo Pita
- MED Institute, University of Évora, Mitra Pole, Évora, Portugal.,Unit of Conservation Biology, Institute of Mediterranean Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, University of Évora, Mitra Pole, Évora, Portugal
| | - Jorge Correia
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, CIISA-Center for Interdisciplinary Research in Animal Health, University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal
| | | | - Pedro Beja
- CIBIO-InBIO, Research Center in Biodiversity and Genetic Resources, University of Porto, Vairão, Portugal.,EDP Biodiversity Chair, CIBIO/InBio, Research Center in Biodiversity and Genetic Resources, University of Porto, Vairão, Portugal
| | - Pedro José Esteves
- CIBIO-InBIO, Research Center in Biodiversity and Genetic Resources, University of Porto, Vairão, Portugal.,Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal.,CITS - Center of Investigation in Health Technologies, CESPU, Gandra, Portugal
| | - Joana Abrantes
- CIBIO-InBIO, Research Center in Biodiversity and Genetic Resources, University of Porto, Vairão, Portugal.,Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
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7
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Shuttleworth CM, Everest DJ, Halliwell EC, Hulme B, Wilberforce L, Clews-Roberts R. Detecting viral infection in red squirrels. Vet Rec 2019; 184:507. [PMID: 31000618 DOI: 10.1136/vr.l1798] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - David J Everest
- APHA - Weybridge, Woodham Lane, New Haw, Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB
| | | | - Becky Hulme
- Wildlife Trust of South and West Wales, The Nature Centre, Fountain Road, Tondu, Bridgend CF32 0EH
| | - Lizzie Wilberforce
- Wildlife Trust of South and West Wales, The Nature Centre, Fountain Road, Tondu, Bridgend CF32 0EH
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8
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Wernike K, Wylezich C, Höper D, Schneider J, Lurz PWW, Meredith A, Milne E, Beer M, Ulrich RG. Widespread occurrence of squirrel adenovirus 1 in red and grey squirrels in Scotland detected by a novel real-time PCR assay. Virus Res 2018; 257:113-118. [PMID: 30237072 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2018.09.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2018] [Revised: 08/13/2018] [Accepted: 09/17/2018] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
The Eurasian Red Squirrel (Sciurus vulgaris) is distributed throughout large parts of Europe and Asia. However, its distribution in certain regions of Europe is endangered by the invasive, non-native Grey Squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis). Adenoviruses were already described in squirrels in Great Britain almost two decades ago. In 2013, a squirrel adenovirus (SqAdV-1) was additionally found in a red squirrel from Germany, which suffered from acute diffuse catarrhal enteritis, and the complete genome sequence was determined. Here, samples from dead red (n = 25) and grey (n = 12) squirrels collected in Scotland, UK, were analysed for the presence of this squirrel-associated virus. By using a newly developed real-time PCR targeting the adenoviral polymerase gene, viral DNA was detected in at least one of four tissue samples tested per animal in 64.0% of the red squirrels and 41.7% of the grey squirrels. Exceptionally high viral genome loads were detected in the intestine and liver, but SqAdV-1 DNA was also present in lung and kidney samples of affected animals. Almost complete genome sequence determination of a red squirrel-derived SqAdV-1 strain from Scotland indicated a very high degree of identity to the first German strain. Sequence analysis of the hexon gene, which encodes one of the major antigens of the virion, revealed an identity of 100% between viruses found in red and grey squirrels from Scotland. In conclusion, SqAdV-1 appears to be widespread in the Scottish red and grey squirrel population, which highlights the necessity for continuous wildlife surveillance. The novel real-time PCR assay offers a highly sensitive and robust method for SqAdV-1 surveillance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kerstin Wernike
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Südufer 10, 17493, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany.
| | - Claudia Wylezich
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Südufer 10, 17493, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany.
| | - Dirk Höper
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Südufer 10, 17493, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany.
| | - Julia Schneider
- Institute of Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Südufer 10, 17493, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany; NMI TT Pharmaservices, c/o CoLaborator, Müllerstraße 178, 13353, Berlin, Germany.
| | - Peter W W Lurz
- Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, The Roslin Institute, The University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush Campus, Roslin, Midlothian, EH25 9RG, UK.
| | - Anna Meredith
- Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, The Roslin Institute, The University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush Campus, Roslin, Midlothian, EH25 9RG, UK; Melbourne Veterinary School, The University of Melbourne, Royal Parade Parkville 3010, Melbourne, Australia.
| | - Elspeth Milne
- Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, The Roslin Institute, The University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush Campus, Roslin, Midlothian, EH25 9RG, UK.
| | - Martin Beer
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Südufer 10, 17493, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany.
| | - Rainer G Ulrich
- Institute of Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Südufer 10, 17493, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany.
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9
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Blackett TA, Simpson VR, Haugland S, Everest DJ, Muir CF, Smith KC, Mill AC. Mortalities, amyloidosis and other diseases in free-living red squirrels ( Sciurus vulgaris) on Jersey, Channel Islands. Vet Rec 2018; 183:503. [PMID: 30181130 DOI: 10.1136/vr.104779] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2017] [Revised: 06/14/2018] [Accepted: 07/06/2018] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
Between 2007 and 2014, 337 free-living red squirrels (Sciurus vulgaris) on Jersey, Channel Islands, were examined post mortem as part of a mortality and disease surveillance scheme. Road traffic accidents (RTAs) were attributable for 50.7 per cent (171/337) of the casualties, 34.4 per cent (116/337) succumbed to diseases including fatal exudative dermatitis (FED), 7.1 per cent (24/337) to predation, 6.5 per cent (22/337) to other trauma and 1.2 per cent (4/337) to suspected poisoning. Cat predation accounted for 5 per cent (17/337) of mortalities. Pathologies were diverse and individual animals were often identified with more than one disease process. Squirrelpox virus (SQPV) particles were not detected in selected cases examined by transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Amyloid was identified in 19.3 per cent (65/337) of squirrels, often in conjunction with inflammatory lesions like hepatic capillariasis. A consistent cause of amyloid accumulation was not identified, although there was a significant association of amyloidosis with hepatic capillariasis and FED. In addition to RTAs, amyloidosis and FED have been identified as important causes of squirrel morbidity and mortality on Jersey, while the underlying aetiology and predisposing factors for these two disease complexes are presently unclear. Disease, fragmented woodlands, an increasingly suburban habitat, along with various anthropogenic factors, may jeopardise the long-term viability of this island red squirrel population.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Clare F Muir
- Department of Pathology and Pathogen Biology, Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, UK
| | - Kenneth C Smith
- Department of Pathology and Pathogen Biology, Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, UK
| | - Aileen C Mill
- School of Natural and Environmental Sciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
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10
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Franklinos LHV, Fernandez JRR, Hydeskov HB, Hopkins KP, Everest DJ, Cunningham AA, Lawson B. Herpesvirus skin disease in free-living common frogs Rana temporaria in Great Britain. DISEASES OF AQUATIC ORGANISMS 2018; 129:239-244. [PMID: 30154283 DOI: 10.3354/dao03246] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Infectious disease is a significant driver of global amphibian declines, yet despite this, relatively little is known about the range of pathogens that affect free-living amphibians. Recent detection of the tentatively named Ranid herpesvirus 3 (RHV3), associated with skin disease in free-living common frogs Rana temporaria in Switzerland, helps to address this paucity in knowledge, but the geographic distribution and epidemiology of the pathogen remains unclear. Syndromic surveillance for ranid herpesvirus skin disease was undertaken throughout Great Britain (GB), January 2014 to December 2016. Reports of common frogs with macroscopic skin lesions with a characteristic grey appearance were solicited from members of the public. Post-mortem examination was conducted on one affected frog found dead in 2015 at a site in England. In addition, archived samples from an incident involving common frogs in England in 1997 with similar macroscopic lesions were further investigated. Transmission electron microscopy identified herpes-like virions in skin lesions from both the 1997 and 2015 incidents. RHV3, or RHV3-like virus, was detected in skin lesions from the 2015 case by PCR and sequencing. Our findings indicate that herpesvirus skin disease is endemic in common frogs in GB, with widespread distribution at apparently low prevalence. Further research into the role of host immunity, virus latency and the significance of infection to host survival is required to better understand the epidemiology and impact of cutaneous herpesvirus infections in amphibian populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- L H V Franklinos
- Institute of Zoology, Zoological Society of London, Regent's Park, London, NW1 4RY, UK
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