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Azevedo VC, Kennedy CJ. The effects of P-glycoprotein induction on ivermectin-induced behavioural alterations in zebrafish (Danio rerio) under varying diets. Comp Biochem Physiol C Toxicol Pharmacol 2023; 274:109740. [PMID: 37689171 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpc.2023.109740] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2023] [Revised: 08/24/2023] [Accepted: 09/03/2023] [Indexed: 09/11/2023]
Abstract
The neuroprotective effects of inducing the blood-brain barrier ATP-binding cassette protein transporter P-glycoprotein (P-gp) with clotrimazole (CTZ) in both fed and fasted zebrafish (Danio rerio) against the CNS-toxicant ivermectin (IVM, 22,23-dihydro avermectin B1a + 22,23-dihydro avermectin B1b) were examined. Zebrafish were administered 2 μmol/kg IVM intraperitoneally, and various behavioural assays (swimming performance, exploratory behaviour, olfactory responses, motor coordination, and escape responses) were used to measure neurological dysfunction. IVM administration alone caused a decrease in mean swim speed (91 % of controls), maximal speed (71 %), passage rate (81 %), 90° turns (81 %), and response to food stimulus (39 %). IVM exposure also increased the percent time that fish spent immobile (45 % increase over controls) and the percent of lethargic fish (40 % increase). Fish administered 30 μmol/kg of the P-gp inducer CTZ intraperitoneally 3 d prior to IVM exposure exhibited a change in only the % time spent immobile. These data indicate that P-gp induction may be limited in protecting the zebrafish CNS from IVM over baseline. Fasted fish did not differ from fed fish in the effects of IVM on behaviour, and no differences were seen following P-gp induction with CTZ. These results suggest that this chemical defence system is not downregulated when fish are challenged with limited energy availability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vinicius Cavicchioli Azevedo
- Department of Biological Sciences, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada. https://twitter.com/vini_cazevedo
| | - Christopher J Kennedy
- Department of Biological Sciences, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada.
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2
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Acosta M, Quiroz E, Tovar-Ramírez D, Roberto VP, Dias J, Gavaia PJ, Fernández I. Fish Microbiome Modulation and Convenient Storage of Aquafeeds When Supplemented with Vitamin K1. Animals (Basel) 2022; 12:ani12233248. [PMID: 36496769 PMCID: PMC9735498 DOI: 10.3390/ani12233248] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2022] [Revised: 11/13/2022] [Accepted: 11/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Vitamin K (VK) is a fat-soluble vitamin necessary for fish metabolism and health. VK stability as dietary component during aquafeed storage and its potential effect on intestinal microbiome in fish have not yet been completely elucidated. The convenient storage conditions of aquafeeds when supplemented with phylloquinone (VK1), as well as its potential effects on the gut microbiota of Senegalese sole (Solea senegalensis) juveniles, have been explored. Experimental feeds were formulated to contain 0, 250 and 1250 mg kg-1 of VK1 and were stored at different temperatures (4, -20 or -80 °C). VK stability was superior at -20 °C for short-term (7 days) storage, while storing at -80 °C was best suited for long-term storage (up to 3 months). A comparison of bacterial communities from Senegalese sole fed diets containing 0 or 1250 mg kg-1 of VK1 showed that VK1 supplementation decreased the abundance of the Vibrio, Pseudoalteromonas, and Rhodobacterace families. All these microorganisms were previously associated with poor health status in aquatic organisms. These results contribute not only to a greater understanding of the physiological effects of vitamin K, particularly through fish intestinal microbiome, but also establish practical guidelines in the industry for proper aquafeed storage when supplemented with VK1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcos Acosta
- Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas del Noroeste, Av. Instituto Politécnico Nacional 195, Col. Playa Palo de Santa Rita Sur, La Paz 23096, BCS, Mexico
| | - Eduardo Quiroz
- CONACYT-CIBNOR, Av. Instituto Politécnico Nacional 195, Col. Playa Palo de Santa Rita Sur, Baja California Sur, La Paz 23096, BCS, Mexico
| | - Dariel Tovar-Ramírez
- Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas del Noroeste, Av. Instituto Politécnico Nacional 195, Col. Playa Palo de Santa Rita Sur, La Paz 23096, BCS, Mexico
| | - Vânia Palma Roberto
- ABC Collaborative Laboratory, Association for Integrated Aging and Rejuvenation Solutions (ABC CoLAB), 8100-735 Loulé, Portugal
- Algarve Biomedical Center Research Institute (ABC-RI), Campus Gambelas, Bld.2, 8005-139 Faro, Portugal
| | - Jorge Dias
- SPAROS Ltd., Área Empresarial de Marim, Lote C, 8700-221 Olhão, Portugal
| | - Paulo J. Gavaia
- Centro de Ciências do Mar (CCMAR), Campus de Gambelas, University of Algarve, 8005-139 Faro, Portugal
- Associação Oceano Verde–GreenCoLab, Campus de Gambelas, University of Algarve, 8005-139 Faro, Portugal
| | - Ignacio Fernández
- Centro Oceanográfico de Vigo, Instituto Español de Oceanografía (IEO), CSIC, 36390 Vigo, Spain
- Correspondence: or
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Pes K, Ortiz-Delgado JB, Sarasquete C, Laizé V, Fernández I. Short-term exposure to pharmaceuticals negatively impacts marine flatfish species: Histological, biochemical and molecular clues for an integrated ecosystem risk assessment. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND PHARMACOLOGY 2022; 90:103822. [PMID: 35101594 DOI: 10.1016/j.etap.2022.103822] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2021] [Revised: 01/24/2022] [Accepted: 01/26/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
The marine habitat and its biodiversity can be impacted by released pharmaceuticals. The short-term (7 days) effect of 3 commonly used drugs - warfarin, dexamethasone and imidazole - on Senegalese sole (Solea senegalensis) juveniles was investigated. Occurrence of hemorrhages, histopathological alterations, antioxidant status, activity of antioxidant enzymes and expression of genes involved in the xenobiotic response (pxr, abcb1 and cyp1a), were evaluated. The results showed a time and drug-dependent effect. Warfarin exposure induced hemorrhages, hepatocyte vacuolar degeneration, and altered the activity of glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and the expression of all the studied genes. Dexamethasone exposure increased liver glycogen content, altered antioxidant status, GPx and superoxide dismutase activities, as well as abcb1 and cyp1a expression. Imidazole induced hepatocyte vacuolar degeneration and ballooning, and altered the antioxidant status and expression of the tested genes. The present work anticipates a deeper impact of pharmaceuticals on the aquatic environment than previously reported, thus underlining the urgent need for an integrated risk assessment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katia Pes
- Centro de Ciências do Mar (CCMAR), Universidade do Algarve, Campus de Gambelas, 8005-139 Faro, Portugal
| | - Juan B Ortiz-Delgado
- Instituto de Ciencias Marinas de Andalucía-ICMAN/CSIC, Campus Universitario Río San Pedro, Apdo. Oficial, 11510 Puerto Real, Cádiz, Spain
| | - Carmen Sarasquete
- Instituto de Ciencias Marinas de Andalucía-ICMAN/CSIC, Campus Universitario Río San Pedro, Apdo. Oficial, 11510 Puerto Real, Cádiz, Spain
| | - Vincent Laizé
- Centro de Ciências do Mar (CCMAR), Universidade do Algarve, Campus de Gambelas, 8005-139 Faro, Portugal; S2 AQUA - Sustainable and Smart Aquaculture Collaborative Laboratory, Olhão, Portugal
| | - Ignacio Fernández
- Aquaculture Research Center, Agro-Technological Institute of Castilla y León (ITACyL), Ctra. Arévalo, s/n, 40196 Zamarramala, Segovia, Spain; Centro Oceanográfico de Vigo, Instituto Español de Oceanografía (IEO-CSIC), 36390 Vigo, Spain.
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Pes K, Friese A, Cox CJ, Laizé V, Fernández I. Biochemical and molecular responses of the Mediterranean mussel (Mytilus galloprovincialis) to short-term exposure to three commonly prescribed drugs. MARINE ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2021; 168:105309. [PMID: 33798995 DOI: 10.1016/j.marenvres.2021.105309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2020] [Revised: 03/03/2021] [Accepted: 03/11/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Pharmaceuticals represent a group of emerging contaminants. The short-term effect (3 and 7 days) of warfarin (1 and 10 mg L-1), dexamethasone (0.392 and 3.92 mg L-1) and imidazole (0.013 and 0.13 mg L-1) exposure was evaluated on mussels (Mytilus galloprovincialis). Total antioxidant status, glutathione reductase, glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and superoxide dismutase enzyme activities, and the expression of genes involved in the xenobiotic response (ATP binding cassette subfamily B member 1 (abcb1) and several nuclear receptor family J (nr1j) isoforms), were evaluated. All nr1j isoforms are suggested to be the xenobiotic receptor orthologs of the NR1I family. All drugs increased GPx activity and altered the expression of particular nr1j isoforms. Dexamethasone exposure also decreased abcb1 expression. These findings raised some concerns regarding the release of these pharmaceuticals into the aquatic environment. Thus, further studies might be needed to perform an accurate environmental risk assessment of these 3 poorly studied drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katia Pes
- Centro de Ciências do Mar (CCMAR), Universidade do Algarve, Campus de Gambelas, 8005-139, Faro, Portugal
| | - Annika Friese
- Centro de Ciências do Mar (CCMAR), Universidade do Algarve, Campus de Gambelas, 8005-139, Faro, Portugal
| | - Cymon J Cox
- Centro de Ciências do Mar (CCMAR), Universidade do Algarve, Campus de Gambelas, 8005-139, Faro, Portugal
| | - Vincent Laizé
- Centro de Ciências do Mar (CCMAR), Universidade do Algarve, Campus de Gambelas, 8005-139, Faro, Portugal
| | - Ignacio Fernández
- Aquaculture Research Center, Agro-Technological Institute of Castilla y León (ITACyL), Ctra. Arévalo, s/n. 40196 Zamarramala, Segovia, Spain.
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5
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Regulation of CAR and PXR Expression in Health and Disease. Cells 2020; 9:cells9112395. [PMID: 33142929 PMCID: PMC7692647 DOI: 10.3390/cells9112395] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2020] [Revised: 10/22/2020] [Accepted: 10/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Pregnane X receptor (PXR, NR1I2) and constitutive androstane receptor (CAR, NR1I3) are members of the nuclear receptor superfamily that mainly act as ligand-activated transcription factors. Their functions have long been associated with the regulation of drug metabolism and disposition, and it is now well established that they are implicated in physiological and pathological conditions. Considerable efforts have been made to understand the regulation of their activity by their cognate ligand; however, additional regulatory mechanisms, among which the regulation of their expression, modulate their pleiotropic effects. This review summarizes the current knowledge on CAR and PXR expression during development and adult life; tissue distribution; spatial, temporal, and metabolic regulations; as well as in pathological situations, including chronic diseases and cancers. The expression of CAR and PXR is modulated by complex regulatory mechanisms that involve the interplay of transcription factors and also post-transcriptional and epigenetic modifications. Moreover, many environmental stimuli affect CAR and PXR expression through mechanisms that have not been elucidated.
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6
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Beato S, Toledo-Solís FJ, Fernández I. Vitamin K in Vertebrates' Reproduction: Further Puzzling Pieces of Evidence from Teleost Fish Species. Biomolecules 2020; 10:E1303. [PMID: 32917043 PMCID: PMC7564532 DOI: 10.3390/biom10091303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2020] [Revised: 09/04/2020] [Accepted: 09/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Vitamin K (VK) is a fat-soluble vitamin that vertebrates have to acquire from the diet, since they are not able to de novo synthesize it. VK has been historically known to be required for the control of blood coagulation, and more recently, bone development and homeostasis. Our understanding of the VK metabolism and the VK-related molecular pathways has been also increased, and the two main VK-related pathways-the pregnane X receptor (PXR) transactivation and the co-factor role on the γ-glutamyl carboxylation of the VK dependent proteins-have been thoroughly investigated during the last decades. Although several studies evidenced how VK may have a broader VK biological function than previously thought, including the reproduction, little is known about the specific molecular pathways. In vertebrates, sex differentiation and gametogenesis are tightly regulated processes through a highly complex molecular, cellular and tissue crosstalk. Here, VK metabolism and related pathways, as well as how gametogenesis might be impacted by VK nutritional status, will be reviewed. Critical knowledge gaps and future perspectives on how the different VK-related pathways come into play on vertebrate's reproduction will be identified and proposed. The present review will pave the research progress to warrant a successful reproductive status through VK nutritional interventions as well as towards the establishment of reliable biomarkers for determining proper nutritional VK status in vertebrates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silvia Beato
- Campus de Vegazana, s/n, Universidad de León (ULE), 24071 León, Spain;
| | - Francisco Javier Toledo-Solís
- Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACYT, México), Av. Insurgentes Sur 1582, Col. Crédito Constructor, Alcaldía Benito Juárez, C.P. 03940 Ciudad de Mexico, Mexico;
- Department of Biology and Geology, University of Almería, 04120 Almería, Spain
| | - Ignacio Fernández
- Center for Aquaculture Research, Agrarian Technological Institute of Castile and Leon, Ctra. Arévalo, s/n, 40196 Zamarramala, Segovia, Spain
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7
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Beato S, Marques C, Laizé V, Gavaia PJ, Fernández I. New Insights on Vitamin K Metabolism in Senegalese sole ( Solea senegalensis) Based on Ontogenetic and Tissue-Specific Vitamin K Epoxide Reductase Molecular Data. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:E3489. [PMID: 32429051 PMCID: PMC7278968 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21103489] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2020] [Revised: 05/07/2020] [Accepted: 05/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Vitamin K (VK) is a key nutrient for several biological processes (e.g., blood clotting and bone metabolism). To fulfill VK nutritional requirements, VK action as an activator of pregnane X receptor (Pxr) signaling pathway, and as a co-factor of γ-glutamyl carboxylase enzyme, should be considered. In this regard, VK recycling through vitamin K epoxide reductases (Vkors) is essential and should be better understood. Here, the expression patterns of vitamin K epoxide reductase complex subunit 1 (vkorc1) and vkorc1 like 1 (vkorc1l1) were determined during the larval ontogeny of Senegalese sole (Solea senegalensis), and in early juveniles cultured under different physiological conditions. Full-length transcripts for ssvkorc1 and ssvkorc1l1 were determined and peptide sequences were found to be evolutionarily conserved. During larval development, expression of ssvkorc1 showed a slight increase during absence or low feed intake. Expression of ssvkorc1l1 continuously decreased until 24 h post-fertilization, and remained constant afterwards. Both ssvkors were ubiquitously expressed in adult tissues, and highest expression was found in liver for ssvkorc1, and ovary and brain for ssvkorc1l1. Expression of ssvkorc1 and ssvkorc1l1 was differentially regulated under physiological conditions related to fasting and re-feeding, but also under VK dietary supplementation and induced deficiency. The present work provides new and basic molecular clues evidencing how VK metabolism in marine fish is sensitive to nutritional and environmental conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silvia Beato
- Campus de Vegazana, Universidad de León (ULE), s/n, 24071 León, Spain;
| | - Carlos Marques
- Centro de Ciências do Mar (CCMAR), Universidade do Algarve, Campus de Gambelas, 8005-139 Faro, Portugal; (C.M.); (V.L.); (P.J.G.)
| | - Vincent Laizé
- Centro de Ciências do Mar (CCMAR), Universidade do Algarve, Campus de Gambelas, 8005-139 Faro, Portugal; (C.M.); (V.L.); (P.J.G.)
| | - Paulo J. Gavaia
- Centro de Ciências do Mar (CCMAR), Universidade do Algarve, Campus de Gambelas, 8005-139 Faro, Portugal; (C.M.); (V.L.); (P.J.G.)
- Departamento de Ciências Biomédicas e Medicina (DCBM), Universidade do Algarve, Campus de Gambelas, 8005-139 Faro, Portugal
| | - Ignacio Fernández
- Center for Aquaculture Research, Agrarian Technological Institute of Castile and Leon, Ctra. Arévalo, S/n. Zamarramala, 40196 Segovia, Spain
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8
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Granadeiro L, Dirks RP, Ortiz-Delgado JB, Gavaia PJ, Sarasquete C, Laizé V, Cancela ML, Fernández I. Warfarin-exposed zebrafish embryos resembles human warfarin embryopathy in a dose and developmental-time dependent manner - From molecular mechanisms to environmental concerns. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2019; 181:559-571. [PMID: 31238190 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2019.06.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2019] [Revised: 06/13/2019] [Accepted: 06/14/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Warfarin is the most worldwide used anticoagulant drug and rodenticide. Since it crosses placental barrier it can induce warfarin embryopathy (WE), a fetal mortality in neonates characterized by skeletal deformities in addition to brain hemorrhages. Although the effects of warfarin exposure in aquatic off target species were already described, the particular molecular toxicological mechanisms during early development are still unclear. Here, we used zebrafish (Danio rerio) to describe and compare the developmental effects of warfarin exposure (0, 15.13, 75.68 and 378.43 mM) on two distinct early developmental phases (embryos and eleuthero-embryos). Although exposure to both developmental phases induced fish mortality, only embryos exposed to the highest warfarin level exhibited features mimicking mammalian WE, e.g. high mortality, higher incidence of hemorrhages and altered skeletal development, among other effects. To gain insights into the toxic mechanisms underlying warfarin exposure, the transcriptome of embryos exposed to warfarin was explored through RNA-Seq and compared to that of control embryos. 766 differentially expressed (564 up- and 202 down-regulated) genes were identified. Gene Ontology analysis revealed particular cellular components (cytoplasm, extracellular matrix, lysosome and vacuole), biological processes (mainly amino acid and lipid metabolism and response to stimulus) and pathways (oxidative stress response and apoptosis signaling pathways) being significantly overrepresented in zebrafish embryos upon warfarin exposure. Protein-protein interaction further evidenced an altered redox system, blood coagulation and vasculogenesis, visual phototransduction and collagen formation upon warfarin exposure. The present study not only describes for the first time the WE in zebrafish, it provides new insights for a better risk assessment, and highlights the need for programming the rat eradication actions outside the fish spawning season to avoid an impact on off target fish community. The urge for the development of more species-specific anticoagulants for rodent pest control is also highlighted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luis Granadeiro
- Centro de Ciências do Mar (CCMAR), Universidade do Algarve, Campus de Gambelas, 8005-139 Faro, Portugal
| | - Ron P Dirks
- ZF-screens B.V. J.H. Oortweg 19, 2333, CH Leiden, the Netherlands
| | - Juan B Ortiz-Delgado
- Instituto de Ciencias Marinas de Andalucía-ICMAN/CSIC, Campus Universitario Río San Pedro, Apdo. Oficial, 11510, Puerto Real, Cádiz, Spain
| | - Paulo J Gavaia
- Centro de Ciências do Mar (CCMAR), Universidade do Algarve, Campus de Gambelas, 8005-139 Faro, Portugal; Departamento de Ciências Biomédicas e Medicina (DCBM), Universidade do Algarve, Campus de Gambelas, 8005-139 Faro, Portugal
| | - Carmen Sarasquete
- Instituto de Ciencias Marinas de Andalucía-ICMAN/CSIC, Campus Universitario Río San Pedro, Apdo. Oficial, 11510, Puerto Real, Cádiz, Spain
| | - Vincent Laizé
- Centro de Ciências do Mar (CCMAR), Universidade do Algarve, Campus de Gambelas, 8005-139 Faro, Portugal
| | - M Leonor Cancela
- Centro de Ciências do Mar (CCMAR), Universidade do Algarve, Campus de Gambelas, 8005-139 Faro, Portugal; Departamento de Ciências Biomédicas e Medicina (DCBM), Universidade do Algarve, Campus de Gambelas, 8005-139 Faro, Portugal; Algarve Biomedical Center (ABC) and Centre for Biomedical Research (CBMR), Universidade do Algarve, Campus de Gambelas, 8005-139 Faro, Portugal
| | - Ignacio Fernández
- Centro de Ciências do Mar (CCMAR), Universidade do Algarve, Campus de Gambelas, 8005-139 Faro, Portugal; Center for Aquaculture Research, Agrarian Technological Institute of Castile and Leon, Ctra. Arévalo, S/n. 40196 Zamarramala, Segovia, Spain.
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9
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Fernández I, Fernandes JM, Roberto VP, Kopp M, Oliveira C, Riesco MF, Dias J, Cox CJ, Leonor Cancela M, Cabrita E, Gavaia P. Circulating small non-coding RNAs provide new insights into vitamin K nutrition and reproductive physiology in teleost fish. Biochim Biophys Acta Gen Subj 2019; 1863:39-51. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2018.09.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2018] [Revised: 09/20/2018] [Accepted: 09/24/2018] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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10
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Fernández I, Gavaia PJ, Laizé V, Cancela ML. Fish as a model to assess chemical toxicity in bone. AQUATIC TOXICOLOGY (AMSTERDAM, NETHERLANDS) 2018; 194:208-226. [PMID: 29202272 DOI: 10.1016/j.aquatox.2017.11.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2017] [Revised: 11/14/2017] [Accepted: 11/22/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Environmental toxicology has been expanding as growing concerns on the impact of produced and released chemical compounds over the environment and human health are being demonstrated. Among the toxic effects observed in organisms exposed to pollutants, those affecting skeletal tissues (osteotoxicity) have been somehow overlooked in comparison to hepato-, immune-, neuro- and/or reproductive toxicities. Nevertheless, sub-lethal effects of toxicants on skeletal development and/or bone maintenance may result in impaired growth, reduced survival rate, increased disease susceptibility and diminished welfare. Osteotoxicity may occur by acute or chronic exposure to different environmental insults. Because of biologically and technically advantagous features - easy to breed and inexpensive to maintain, external and rapid rate of development, translucent larvae and the availability of molecular and genetic tools - the zebrafish (Danio rerio) has emerged in the last decade as a vertebrate model system of choice to evaluate osteotoxicity. Different experimental approaches in fish species and analytical tools have been applied, from in vitro to in vivo systems, from specific to high throughput methodologies. Current knowledge on osteotoxicity and underlying mechanisms gained using fish, with a special emphasis on zebrafish systems, is reviewed here. Osteotoxicants have been classified into four categories according to the pathway involved in the transduction of the osteotoxic effects: activation/inhibition of membrane and/or nuclear receptors, alteration of redox condition, mimicking of bone constituents and unknown pathways. Knowledge on these pathways is also reported here as it may provide critical insights into the development, production and release of future chemical compounds with none or low osteotoxicity, thus promoting the green/environmental friendly chemistry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ignacio Fernández
- Centre of Marine Sciences (CCMAR), University of Algarve, Campus de Gambelas, Faro, Portugal.
| | - Paulo J Gavaia
- Centre of Marine Sciences (CCMAR), University of Algarve, Campus de Gambelas, Faro, Portugal; Department of Biomedical Sciences and Medicine, University of Algarve, Campus de Gambelas, Faro, Portugal
| | - Vincent Laizé
- Centre of Marine Sciences (CCMAR), University of Algarve, Campus de Gambelas, Faro, Portugal
| | - M Leonor Cancela
- Centre of Marine Sciences (CCMAR), University of Algarve, Campus de Gambelas, Faro, Portugal; Department of Biomedical Sciences and Medicine, University of Algarve, Campus de Gambelas, Faro, Portugal; Algarve Biomedical Center (ABC), Universidade do Algarve, Campus de Gambelas, Faro, Portugal
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