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Provera I, Martinez M, Zenone A, Giacalone VM, D'Anna G, Badalamenti F, Marín-Guirao L, Procaccini G. Exploring priming strategies to improve stress resilience of Posidonia oceanica seedlings. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2024; 200:116057. [PMID: 38301434 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2024.116057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2023] [Revised: 01/12/2024] [Accepted: 01/14/2024] [Indexed: 02/03/2024]
Abstract
Seagrasses' ability to store information after exposure to stress (i.e. stress memory) and to better respond to further stress (i.e. priming) have recently been observed, although the temporal persistence of the memory and the mechanisms for priming induction remain to be defined. Here, we explored three priming strategies in Posidonia oceanica seedlings, each inducing a different level of stress, for temperature and salinity. We investigated changes in morphometry, growth rate and biomass between primed and non-primed seedlings. The results showed similar behaviour of seedlings when exposed to an acute stress event, regardless of whether they had been primed or not and of the priming strategy received. This opens the debate on the level of stress necessary for inducing a priming status and the persistence of the stress memory in P. oceanica seedlings. Although no priming-induced stress resistance was observed, seedlings showed unexpectedly high resilience to extreme levels of both abiotic stressors.
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Affiliation(s)
- I Provera
- Department of Integrative Marine Ecology, Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, 80121 Naples, Italy.
| | - M Martinez
- Institute of Anthropic Impacts and Sustainability in Marine Environment, National Research Council (IAS-CNR), Lungomare Cristoforo Colombo n. 4521 (ex complesso Roosevelt), Località Addaura, 90149 Palermo, Italy
| | - A Zenone
- Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, Lungomare Cristoforo Colombo 4521, 90149 Palermo, Italy; National Biodiversity Future Centre (NBFC), Palermo, Italy
| | - V M Giacalone
- Institute of Anthropic Impacts and Sustainability in Marine Environment, National Research Council (IAS-CNR), Via del Mare 3, 91021 Torretta Granitola, Italy; National Biodiversity Future Centre (NBFC), Palermo, Italy
| | - G D'Anna
- Institute of Anthropic Impacts and Sustainability in Marine Environment, National Research Council (IAS-CNR), via Giovanni da Verrazzano 17, 91014 Castellammare del Golfo, Italy; National Biodiversity Future Centre (NBFC), Palermo, Italy
| | - F Badalamenti
- Department of Integrative Marine Ecology, Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, 80121 Naples, Italy; Institute of Anthropic Impacts and Sustainability in Marine Environment, National Research Council (IAS-CNR), Lungomare Cristoforo Colombo n. 4521 (ex complesso Roosevelt), Località Addaura, 90149 Palermo, Italy; National Biodiversity Future Centre (NBFC), Palermo, Italy
| | - L Marín-Guirao
- Department of Integrative Marine Ecology, Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, 80121 Naples, Italy; Centro Oceanográfico de Murcia (IEO-CSIC), Varadero 1, 30740 San Pedro del Pinatar, Spain
| | - G Procaccini
- Department of Integrative Marine Ecology, Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, 80121 Naples, Italy; National Biodiversity Future Centre (NBFC), Palermo, Italy
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2
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Zribi I, Ellouzi H, Mnasri I, Abdelkader N, Ben Hmida A, Dorai S, Debez A, Charfi-Cheikhrouha F, Zakhama-Sraieb R. Effect of shading imposed by the algae Chaeotomorpha linum loads on structure, morphology and physiology of the seagrass Cymodocea nodosa. MARINE ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2023; 188:106001. [PMID: 37121172 DOI: 10.1016/j.marenvres.2023.106001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2022] [Revised: 02/06/2023] [Accepted: 04/23/2023] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
In shallow coastal waters, seagrass and macroalgae occur together but under eutrophic conditions, bloom-forming algae can take over seagrasses causing an irreversible regime shift. Understanding the effect of macroalgae loads on seagrass meadows at an early stage can help prevent the loss of these ecosystems and the services they provide. In the present study, in situ experiments were conducted for 90 days in Bekalta (eastern coast of Tunisia) to assess the response of the seagrass Cymodocea nodosa when challenged with shading induced by filamentous macroalgae Chaetomorpha linum. Structural, morphological and physiological variables were regularly measured during the experiment. Shaded plants showed a sharp decline in shoot density, growth rate, and above-ground biomass, the impact being more pronounced on the physiological traits. Besides, shading by C. linum induced a significant increase in the contents of leaf photosynthetic pigments and phenolic compounds, whereas causing a decrease in soluble protein and sugar concentrations. Thus, shading imposed by C. linum loads appeared to induce a phoadpatative response in C. nodosa concomitant with carbon mobilization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Imen Zribi
- University of Tunis El Manar, Faculty of Sciences of Tunis, Laboratory of Diversity, Management and Conservation of Biological Systems, LR18ES06, Tunis, Tunisia
| | - H Ellouzi
- Laboratory of Extremophile Plants (LPE), Center of Biotechnology of Borj-Cedria (CBBC), BP 901, 2050, Hammam-Lif, Tunisia
| | - I Mnasri
- University of Tunis El Manar, Faculty of Sciences of Tunis, Laboratory of Diversity, Management and Conservation of Biological Systems, LR18ES06, Tunis, Tunisia
| | - N Abdelkader
- University of Tunis El Manar, Faculty of Sciences of Tunis, Laboratory of Diversity, Management and Conservation of Biological Systems, LR18ES06, Tunis, Tunisia
| | - A Ben Hmida
- University of Tunis El Manar, Faculty of Sciences of Tunis, Laboratory of Diversity, Management and Conservation of Biological Systems, LR18ES06, Tunis, Tunisia; Coastal Protection and Development Agency (APAL), 5000, Monastir, Tunisia
| | - S Dorai
- Association ''Notre Grand Bleu'' (NGB, NGO), Diar El Marina, 5000, Monastir, Tunisia
| | - A Debez
- Laboratory of Extremophile Plants (LPE), Center of Biotechnology of Borj-Cedria (CBBC), BP 901, 2050, Hammam-Lif, Tunisia
| | - F Charfi-Cheikhrouha
- University of Tunis El Manar, Faculty of Sciences of Tunis, Laboratory of Diversity, Management and Conservation of Biological Systems, LR18ES06, Tunis, Tunisia
| | - R Zakhama-Sraieb
- University of Tunis El Manar, Faculty of Sciences of Tunis, Laboratory of Diversity, Management and Conservation of Biological Systems, LR18ES06, Tunis, Tunisia; University of Manouba, High Institute of Biotechnology of Sidi Thabet, BiotechPôle, BP-66, 2020, Sidi Thabet, Ariana, Tunisia.
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3
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Pazzaglia J, Badalamenti F, Bernardeau-Esteller J, Ruiz JM, Giacalone VM, Procaccini G, Marín-Guirao L. Thermo-priming increases heat-stress tolerance in seedlings of the Mediterranean seagrass P. oceanica. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2022; 174:113164. [PMID: 34864463 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2021.113164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2021] [Revised: 11/09/2021] [Accepted: 11/12/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Seawater warming and increased incidence of marine heatwaves (MHW) are threatening the integrity of coastal marine habitats including seagrasses, which are particularly vulnerable to climate changes. Novel stress tolerance-enhancing strategies, including thermo-priming, have been extensively applied in terrestrial plants for enhancing resilience capacity under the re-occurrence of a stress event. We applied, for the first time in seedlings of the Mediterranean seagrass Posidonia oceanica, a thermo-priming treatment through the exposure to a simulated warming event. We analyzed the photo-physiological and growth performance of primed and non-primed seedlings, and the gene expression responses of selected genes (i.e. stress-, photosynthesis- and epigenetic-related genes). Results revealed that during the re-occurring stress event, primed seedlings performed better than unprimed showing unaltered photo-physiology supported by high expression levels of genes related to stress response, photosynthesis, and epigenetic modifications. These findings offer new opportunities to improve conservation and restoration efforts in a future scenario of environmental changes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica Pazzaglia
- Department of Integrative Marine Ecology, Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, 80121 Naples, Italy; Department of Life Sciences, University of Trieste, 34127 Trieste, Italy
| | - Fabio Badalamenti
- Department of Integrative Marine Ecology, Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, 80121 Naples, Italy; CNR-IAS, Lungomare Cristoforo Colombo 4521, 90149 Palermo, Italy
| | - Jaime Bernardeau-Esteller
- Seagrass Ecology Group, Oceanographic Center of Murcia, Spanish Institute of Oceanography, Murcia, Spain
| | - Juan M Ruiz
- Seagrass Ecology Group, Oceanographic Center of Murcia, Spanish Institute of Oceanography, Murcia, Spain
| | | | - Gabriele Procaccini
- Department of Integrative Marine Ecology, Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, 80121 Naples, Italy.
| | - Lazaro Marín-Guirao
- Department of Integrative Marine Ecology, Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, 80121 Naples, Italy; Seagrass Ecology Group, Oceanographic Center of Murcia, Spanish Institute of Oceanography, Murcia, Spain
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4
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Nguyen HM, Ralph PJ, Marín-Guirao L, Pernice M, Procaccini G. Seagrasses in an era of ocean warming: a review. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2021; 96:2009-2030. [PMID: 34014018 DOI: 10.1111/brv.12736] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2020] [Revised: 05/06/2021] [Accepted: 05/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Seagrasses are valuable sources of food and habitat for marine life and are one of Earth's most efficient carbon sinks. However, they are facing a global decline due to ocean warming and eutrophication. In the last decade, with the advent of new technology and molecular advances, there has been a dramatic increase in the number of studies focusing on the effects of ocean warming on seagrasses. Here, we provide a comprehensive review of the future of seagrasses in an era of ocean warming. We have gathered information from published studies to identify potential commonalities in the effects of warming and the responses of seagrasses across four distinct levels: molecular, biochemical/physiological, morphological/population, and ecosystem/planetary. To date, we know that although warming strongly affects seagrasses at all four levels, seagrass responses diverge amongst species, populations, and over depths. Furthermore, warming alters seagrass distribution causing massive die-offs in some seagrass populations, whilst also causing tropicalization and migration of temperate species. In this review, we evaluate the combined effects of ocean warming with other environmental stressors and emphasize the need for multiple-stressor studies to provide a deeper understanding of seagrass resilience. We conclude by discussing the most significant knowledge gaps and future directions for seagrass research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hung Manh Nguyen
- Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, Villa Comunale, Napoli, 80121, Italy
| | - Peter J Ralph
- Faculty of Science, Climate Change Cluster (C3), University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, NSW, 2007, Australia
| | - Lázaro Marín-Guirao
- Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, Villa Comunale, Napoli, 80121, Italy.,Seagrass Ecology Group, Oceanographic Centre of Murcia, Spanish Institute of Oceanography, C/Varadero, San Pedro del Pinatar, Murcia, 30740, Spain
| | - Mathieu Pernice
- Faculty of Science, Climate Change Cluster (C3), University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, NSW, 2007, Australia
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5
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Pazzaglia J, Reusch TBH, Terlizzi A, Marín‐Guirao L, Procaccini G. Phenotypic plasticity under rapid global changes: The intrinsic force for future seagrasses survival. Evol Appl 2021; 14:1181-1201. [PMID: 34025759 PMCID: PMC8127715 DOI: 10.1111/eva.13212] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2020] [Revised: 02/03/2021] [Accepted: 02/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Coastal oceans are particularly affected by rapid and extreme environmental changes with dramatic consequences for the entire ecosystem. Seagrasses are key ecosystem engineering or foundation species supporting diverse and productive ecosystems along the coastline that are particularly susceptible to fast environmental changes. In this context, the analysis of phenotypic plasticity could reveal important insights into seagrasses persistence, as it represents an individual property that allows species' phenotypes to accommodate and react to fast environmental changes and stress. Many studies have provided different definitions of plasticity and related processes (acclimation and adaptation) resulting in a variety of associated terminology. Here, we review different ways to define phenotypic plasticity with particular reference to seagrass responses to single and multiple stressors. We relate plasticity to the shape of reaction norms, resulting from genotype by environment interactions, and examine its role in the presence of environmental shifts. The potential role of genetic and epigenetic changes in underlying seagrasses plasticity in face of environmental changes is also discussed. Different approaches aimed to assess local acclimation and adaptation in seagrasses are explored, explaining strengths and weaknesses based on the main results obtained from the most recent literature. We conclude that the implemented experimental approaches, whether performed with controlled or field experiments, provide new insights to explore the basis of plasticity in seagrasses. However, an improvement of molecular analysis and the application of multi-factorial experiments are required to better explore genetic and epigenetic adjustments to rapid environmental shifts. These considerations revealed the potential for selecting the best phenotypes to promote assisted evolution with fundamental implications on restoration and preservation efforts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica Pazzaglia
- Department of Integrative Marine EcologyStazione Zoologica Anton DohrnNaplesItaly
- Department of Life SciencesUniversity of TriesteTriesteItaly
| | - Thorsten B. H. Reusch
- Marine Evolutionary EcologyGEOMAR Helmholtz Centre for Ocean Research KielKielGermany
| | - Antonio Terlizzi
- Department of Life SciencesUniversity of TriesteTriesteItaly
- Department of Biology and Evolution of Marine OrganismsStazione Zoologica Anton DohrnNaplesItaly
| | - Lázaro Marín‐Guirao
- Department of Integrative Marine EcologyStazione Zoologica Anton DohrnNaplesItaly
- Seagrass Ecology GroupOceanographic Center of MurciaSpanish Institute of OceanographyMurciaSpain
| | - Gabriele Procaccini
- Department of Integrative Marine EcologyStazione Zoologica Anton DohrnNaplesItaly
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6
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Bhagooli R, Mattan-Moorgawa S, Kaullysing D, Louis YD, Gopeechund A, Ramah S, Soondur M, Pilly SS, Beesoo R, Wijayanti DP, Bachok ZB, Monrás VC, Casareto BE, Suzuki Y, Baker AC. Chlorophyll fluorescence - A tool to assess photosynthetic performance and stress photophysiology in symbiotic marine invertebrates and seaplants. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2021; 165:112059. [PMID: 33677415 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2021.112059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/25/2019] [Revised: 12/30/2020] [Accepted: 01/01/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Chlorophyll a fluorescence is increasingly being used as a rapid, non-invasive, sensitive and convenient indicator of photosynthetic performance in marine autotrophs. This review presents the methodology, applications and limitations of chlorophyll fluorescence in marine studies. The various chlorophyll fluorescence tools such as Pulse-Amplitude-Modulated (PAM) and Fast Repetition Rate (FRR) fluorometry used in marine scientific studies are discussed. Various commonly employed chlorophyll fluorescence parameters are elaborated. The application of chlorophyll fluorescence in measuring natural variations, stress, stress tolerance and acclimation/adaptation to changing environment in primary producers such as microalgae, macroalgae, seagrasses and mangroves, and marine symbiotic invertebrates, namely symbiotic sponges, hard corals and sea anemones, kleptoplastic sea slugs and giant clams is critically assessed. Stressors include environmental, biological, physical and chemical ones. The strengths, limitations and future perspectives of the use of chlorophyll fluorescence technique as an assessment tool in symbiotic marine organisms and seaplants are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ranjeet Bhagooli
- Department of Biosciences & Ocean Studies, Faculty of Science & Pole of Research Excellence, Sustainable Marine Biodiversity Research Group, University of Mauritius, Réduit 80837, Mauritius; The Biodiversity and Environment Institute, Réduit, Mauritius; The Society of Biology (Mauritius), Réduit, Mauritius; Institute of Oceanography and Environment (INOS), Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, 21030 Kuala Terengganu, Terengganu, Malaysia.
| | - Sushma Mattan-Moorgawa
- Department of Biosciences & Ocean Studies, Faculty of Science & Pole of Research Excellence, Sustainable Marine Biodiversity Research Group, University of Mauritius, Réduit 80837, Mauritius; The Biodiversity and Environment Institute, Réduit, Mauritius
| | - Deepeeka Kaullysing
- Department of Biosciences & Ocean Studies, Faculty of Science & Pole of Research Excellence, Sustainable Marine Biodiversity Research Group, University of Mauritius, Réduit 80837, Mauritius; The Biodiversity and Environment Institute, Réduit, Mauritius
| | - Yohan Didier Louis
- Department of Biosciences & Ocean Studies, Faculty of Science & Pole of Research Excellence, Sustainable Marine Biodiversity Research Group, University of Mauritius, Réduit 80837, Mauritius
| | - Arvind Gopeechund
- Department of Biosciences & Ocean Studies, Faculty of Science & Pole of Research Excellence, Sustainable Marine Biodiversity Research Group, University of Mauritius, Réduit 80837, Mauritius; The Biodiversity and Environment Institute, Réduit, Mauritius
| | - Sundy Ramah
- Department of Biosciences & Ocean Studies, Faculty of Science & Pole of Research Excellence, Sustainable Marine Biodiversity Research Group, University of Mauritius, Réduit 80837, Mauritius
| | - Mouneshwar Soondur
- Department of Biosciences & Ocean Studies, Faculty of Science & Pole of Research Excellence, Sustainable Marine Biodiversity Research Group, University of Mauritius, Réduit 80837, Mauritius; The Biodiversity and Environment Institute, Réduit, Mauritius
| | - Sivajyodee Sannassy Pilly
- Department of Biosciences & Ocean Studies, Faculty of Science & Pole of Research Excellence, Sustainable Marine Biodiversity Research Group, University of Mauritius, Réduit 80837, Mauritius
| | - Rima Beesoo
- Department of Biosciences & Ocean Studies, Faculty of Science & Pole of Research Excellence, Sustainable Marine Biodiversity Research Group, University of Mauritius, Réduit 80837, Mauritius
| | | | - Zainudin Bin Bachok
- Institute of Oceanography and Environment (INOS), Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, 21030 Kuala Terengganu, Terengganu, Malaysia
| | - Víctor Cubillos Monrás
- Instituto de Ciencias Marinas y Limnológicas, Laboratorio Costero de Recursos Acuáticos de Calfuco, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile
| | | | - Yoshimi Suzuki
- Shizuoka University, 836 Oya, Suruga, Shizuoka, Shizuoka, Japan
| | - Andrew Charles Baker
- Department of Marine Biology and Ecology, Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, University of Miami, 4600 Rickenbacker Causeway, Miami, FL 33149, USA
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7
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Stockbridge J, Jones AR, Gillanders BM. A meta-analysis of multiple stressors on seagrasses in the context of marine spatial cumulative impacts assessment. Sci Rep 2020; 10:11934. [PMID: 32686719 PMCID: PMC7371696 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-68801-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2020] [Accepted: 06/29/2020] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Humans are placing more strain on the world’s oceans than ever before. Furthermore, marine ecosystems are seldom subjected to single stressors, rather they are frequently exposed to multiple, concurrent stressors. When the combined effect of these stressors is calculated and mapped through cumulative impact assessments, it is often assumed that the effects are additive. However, there is increasing evidence that different combinations of stressors can have non-additive impacts, potentially leading to synergistic and unpredictable impacts on ecosystems. Accurately predicting how stressors interact is important in conservation, as removal of certain stressors could provide a greater benefit, or be more detrimental than would be predicted by an additive model. Here, we conduct a meta-analysis to assess the prevalence of additive, synergistic, and antagonistic stressor interaction effects using seagrasses as case study ecosystems. We found that additive interactions were the most commonly reported in seagrass studies. Synergistic and antagonistic interactions were also common, but there was no clear way of predicting where these non-additive interactions occurred. More studies which synthesise the results of stressor interactions are needed to be able to generalise interactions across ecosystem types, which can then be used to improve models for assessing cumulative impacts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jackson Stockbridge
- Southern Seas Ecology Laboratories and Environment Institute, School of Biological Sciences, University of Adelaide, Darling Building DX 650 418, Adelaide, SA, 5005, Australia.
| | - Alice R Jones
- Southern Seas Ecology Laboratories and Environment Institute, School of Biological Sciences, University of Adelaide, Darling Building DX 650 418, Adelaide, SA, 5005, Australia
| | - Bronwyn M Gillanders
- Southern Seas Ecology Laboratories and Environment Institute, School of Biological Sciences, University of Adelaide, Darling Building DX 650 418, Adelaide, SA, 5005, Australia
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8
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Guerrero-Meseguer L, Marín A, Sanz-Lázaro C. Heat wave intensity can vary the cumulative effects of multiple environmental stressors on Posidonia oceanica seedlings. MARINE ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2020; 159:105001. [PMID: 32662435 DOI: 10.1016/j.marenvres.2020.105001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2019] [Revised: 04/20/2020] [Accepted: 04/25/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Climate change is introducing new stressors into already stressed ecosystems. Among these, extreme events such as heat waves play a crucial role in determining the structure of ecosystems. We tested single and combined effects of overgrazing, burial and heat waves on the seedlings of the habitat-forming species Posidonia oceanica. At current heat wave temperatures, overgrazing in isolation had more deleterious effects than seed burial, and effects were synergistic and additive when both factors co-occurred. The combined effect of overgrazing and seed burial with current heat waves could hamper P. oceanica seedling development, with similar or even higher levels than the sole effect of heat waves in the near future (29 °C). The effects of overgrazing and seed burial are expected to be overridden if heat waves temperatures exceed 29 °C. These results suggest that co-occurring environmental stressors, in combination with current heat waves, could compromise the sexual recruitment of this seagrass.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Guerrero-Meseguer
- Departamento de Ecología e Hidrología, Facultad de Biología, Universidad de Murcia. Campus de Espinardo, 30100, Murcia, Spain; Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research (CIIMAR), Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, Campo Alegre s/n, 4150-181, Porto, Portugal.
| | - Arnaldo Marín
- Departamento de Ecología e Hidrología, Facultad de Biología, Universidad de Murcia. Campus de Espinardo, 30100, Murcia, Spain
| | - Carlos Sanz-Lázaro
- Departamento de Ecología, Universidad de Alicante, P.O. Box 99, E-03080, Alicante, Spain; Multidisciplinary Institute for Environmental Studies (MIES), Universidad de Alicante, P.O. Box 99, E-03080, Alicante, Spain.
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