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Guan YJ, He H, Fan KD, Wang SZ, Guo ZC, Wang HJ, Cui LJ, Chen W, Huang CP, Liu ZY, He XW, Guo KX, Zhang JJ, Xu ZY. Spatial distribution, source identification, and transportation paths of plutonium in the Beibu Gulf, South China Sea. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2024; 199:115972. [PMID: 38154170 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2023.115972] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2023] [Revised: 12/12/2023] [Accepted: 12/21/2023] [Indexed: 12/30/2023]
Abstract
To investigate the spatial distribution and source of plutonium isotopes in the Beibu Gulf, surface sediments were collected and analyzed using sector field inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (SF-ICP-MS). The activities of 239+240Pu in surface sediments ranged from 0.012 to 0.451 mBq/g (mean: 0.171 ± 0.138 mBq/g, n = 36), indicating a decreasing trend in a counterclockwise direction from the southern bay mouth. The counterclockwise decreasing trend in the south of the bay mouth is similar to the current in the Beibu Gulf. The 240Pu/239Pu atom ratios in surface sediments ranged from 0.156 to 0.283 (mean: 0.236 ± 0.031, n = 36), slightly higher than that of the global fallout value of 0.18. This suggests that the Pu in the Beibu Gulf was a combination of global fallout and Pacific Proving Ground (PPG). The average contribution of the plutonium (Pu) derived from the PPG in the sediment was estimated to be 52 % ± 24 %.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yong-Jing Guan
- Guangxi Key Laboratory for Relativistic Astrophysics, School of Physical Science and Technology, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China
| | - Hua He
- Guangxi Key Laboratory for Relativistic Astrophysics, School of Physical Science and Technology, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China
| | - Kai-di Fan
- Guangxi Key Laboratory for Relativistic Astrophysics, School of Physical Science and Technology, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China
| | - Shen-Zhen Wang
- Guangxi Key Laboratory for Relativistic Astrophysics, School of Physical Science and Technology, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China
| | - Zi-Chen Guo
- Guangxi Key Laboratory for Relativistic Astrophysics, School of Physical Science and Technology, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China
| | - Hui-Juan Wang
- Guangxi Key Laboratory for Relativistic Astrophysics, School of Physical Science and Technology, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China
| | - Liang-Jia Cui
- Guangxi Key Laboratory for Relativistic Astrophysics, School of Physical Science and Technology, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China
| | - Wu Chen
- Guangxi Key Laboratory for Relativistic Astrophysics, School of Physical Science and Technology, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China
| | - Chun-Ping Huang
- Guangxi Key Laboratory for Relativistic Astrophysics, School of Physical Science and Technology, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China
| | - Zhi-Yong Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Radiation Medicine and Protection, School for Radiological and Interdisciplinary Sciences (RAD-X) and Collaborative Innovation Centre of Radiation Medicine of Jiangsu Higher Education Institutions, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China.
| | - Xian-Wen He
- Radiation-Environment Management and Monitoring Station of Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, Guangxi, Nanning 530222, China
| | - Kai-Xing Guo
- Radiation-Environment Management and Monitoring Station of Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, Guangxi, Nanning 530222, China
| | - Jia-Jia Zhang
- Radiation-Environment Management and Monitoring Station of Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, Guangxi, Nanning 530222, China
| | - Ze-Yue Xu
- Radiation-Environment Management and Monitoring Station of Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, Guangxi, Nanning 530222, China
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Zhang S, Liu Z, Yang G, Zheng J, Pan S, Aono T, Sakaguchi A. Rapid Method To Determine 137Cs, 237Np, and Pu Isotopes in Seawater by SF-ICP-MS. Anal Chem 2023; 95:16892-16901. [PMID: 37906231 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.3c02702] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2023]
Abstract
Neptunium-237, owing to its long half-life (t1/2 = 2.14 × 106 year) and similar conservatism to 137Cs, has the potential to replace 137Cs for water mass circulation studies on decades and even longer time scales. A new method for the determination of 137Cs, 237Np, and Pu isotopes in seawater samples was proposed to solve the difficulty of 237Np analysis in seawater. The developed method includes the separation technique of ammonium phosphomolybdate (AMP) adsorption for 137Cs and anion exchange chromatography for 237Np and Pu, a measurement technique of gamma spectrometry for 137Cs and SF-ICP-MS for 237Np and Pu isotopes. 242Pu as a pseudo isotope dilution tracer for Np, the negligible chemical fractionation between 237Np and 242Pu of 1.02 ± 0.06 (k = 2) was obtained by implementing sophisticated control of the redox system and chromatographic elution optimization. The analytical results for the International Atomic Energy Agency Certified Reference Materials (IAEA-443) agreed with the reference values, showing chemical yields of 65-88%, U decontamination factor above 106 level, and improved sample throughput (5 days for 12 samples). Meanwhile, the lower method detection limits (MDLs) of 237Np, 239Pu, and 240Pu were 1.3 × 10-3, 0.065, and 0.15 μBq L-1 for 15 L seawater, respectively. Results obtained by the developed method can be used to evaluate the impact on the marine ecological system of the planned marine discharge of Fukushima decontaminated wastewater. Working toward that purpose, we are the first to report the 237Np activity concentration in Pacific Ocean seawater sampled near the station site, and we obtained the value of 0.122-0.154 μBq L-1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuai Zhang
- Institute of Radiological Sciences, National Institutes for Quantum Science and Technology, 4-9-1 Anagawa, Inage , Chiba 263-8555, Japan
- School of Geographic and Oceanographic Sciences, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Zhiyong Liu
- Institute of Radiological Sciences, National Institutes for Quantum Science and Technology, 4-9-1 Anagawa, Inage , Chiba 263-8555, Japan
- State Key Laboratory of Radiation Medicine and Protection, School for Radiological and Interdisciplinary Sciences (RAD-X) and Collaborative Innovation Centre of Radiation Medicine of Jiangsu Higher Education Institutions, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China
| | - Guosheng Yang
- Institute of Radiological Sciences, National Institutes for Quantum Science and Technology, 4-9-1 Anagawa, Inage , Chiba 263-8555, Japan
| | - Jian Zheng
- Institute of Radiological Sciences, National Institutes for Quantum Science and Technology, 4-9-1 Anagawa, Inage , Chiba 263-8555, Japan
| | - Shaoming Pan
- School of Geographic and Oceanographic Sciences, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Tatsuo Aono
- Institute of Radiological Sciences, National Institutes for Quantum Science and Technology, 4-9-1 Anagawa, Inage , Chiba 263-8555, Japan
- Radioecology Unit, Fukushima Institute for Research, Education and Innovation, 1 Hikariga-oka, Fukushima, Fukushima 960-1295, Japan
| | - Aya Sakaguchi
- Institute of Pure and Applied Sciences, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba , Ibaraki 305-8577, Japan
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Chen J, Wang C, Wu J, Tao S. Plutonium in sediments of the Eastern Guangdong coast-its sources and their contribution. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2023; 193:115222. [PMID: 37406399 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2023.115222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2023] [Revised: 06/19/2023] [Accepted: 06/22/2023] [Indexed: 07/07/2023]
Abstract
The 239+240Pu activities and 240Pu/239Pu atom ratios of surface sediments from the Eastern Guangdong coast (EGDC) were determined by sector field ICP-MS in order to examine the sources of plutonium (Pu) and quantify their contributions. The 239+240Pu activities in the EGDC ranged from 0.113 to 0.451 Bq kg-1, with an average of 0.225 ± 0.090 Bq kg-1 (n = 17). Consistently high 240Pu/239Pu atom ratios, ranging from 0.218 to 0.274 (average = 0.254 ± 0.014, n = 17), indicate a non-global fallout Pu source in the EGDC. The horizontal distribution of the 240Pu/239Pu atom ratios in the EGDC sediment suggests the non-global fallout Pu is sourced from close-in fallout from the Pacific Proving Grounds (PPG). Using a simple two end-member mixing model, we calculated the relative proportions of Pu from the PPG and global fallout in the EGDC to be 57 ± 9 % and 43 ± 9 %, respectively. Moreover, from the well-defined relationship between 239+240Pu activity and total organic carbon content in sediments and a two end-member mixing model using δ13C, we further calculated the Terr-global fallout (riverine input) and Mar-global fallout (direct atmospheric deposition) to be 11 ± 2 % and 32 ± 6 %, respectively. Finally, from the activity levels and atom ratios of Pu isotopes in the EGDC, we established a baseline for future use in environmental risk assessment related to nuclear power plant operations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jisheng Chen
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Marine Disaster Prediction and Prevention & Institute of Marine Sciences, Shantou University, Shantou 515063, China
| | - Cui Wang
- Third Institute of Oceanography, Ministry of Natural Resource, Xiamen 361005, China
| | - Junwen Wu
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Marine Disaster Prediction and Prevention & Institute of Marine Sciences, Shantou University, Shantou 515063, China; Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory (Guangzhou), Guangzhou 511458, China.
| | - Shuqin Tao
- Third Institute of Oceanography, Ministry of Natural Resource, Xiamen 361005, China
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Romanenko V, Lujanienė G. Short review of plutonium applications for the sediment transport studies. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RADIOACTIVITY 2023; 257:107066. [PMID: 36395679 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvrad.2022.107066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2022] [Accepted: 11/06/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
The transport of sediments in surface waters is a natural process involving the relocation of the sediments themselves and the nutrients, pollutants and radionuclides associated with them. Plutonium isotopes have proven to be a useful tool for studying this process over several decades. In this article, we review the characteristics of the behaviour of plutonium in the water column and the main directions of its use to study the transport of sediments at different scales. The characteristic isotopic fingerprints of the sources and their known input functions, as well as the good reactivity of the particles, favour the widespread use of plutonium for the study of the chronology of sediments and deposits and for studies of the fate and migration pathways of sediments at different scales. While other radionuclides are losing relevance due to the short half-life the 239Pu and 240Pu will remain useable for a long time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vitaliy Romanenko
- State Research Institute Center for Physical Sciences and Technology Public Institution, Savanorių ave. 231, LT-02300, Vilnius, Lithuania.
| | - Galina Lujanienė
- State Research Institute Center for Physical Sciences and Technology Public Institution, Savanorių ave. 231, LT-02300, Vilnius, Lithuania
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Huang Y, Sun X, Zhang W. Spatio-temporal distribution of 239+240Pu in sediments of the China sea and adjacent waters. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RADIOACTIVITY 2022; 253-254:107010. [PMID: 36108554 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvrad.2022.107010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2021] [Revised: 08/23/2022] [Accepted: 09/02/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Data of 239+240Pu activities and 240Pu/239Pu atom ratios in surface and core sediments of the China Sea and adjacent waters were collected. We examine a dataset of 239+240Pu activities and 240Pu/239Pu ratios determined from surface sediments at 516 sites and 84 core sediment mainly across the China Sea and adjacent waters. For the first time the spatial distributions of the 239+240Pu activities, the 240Pu/239Pu ratios and the Pacific Proving Ground (PPG) fraction in the China Sea and adjacent waters are fully presented at the same time. Four types of typical 239+240Pu distribution with depth are commonly summarized: non-peak, pseudo single peak, single peak and multi peaks, which are based on the comprehensive analysis of the vertical distribution of 239+240Pu in 84 sediment cores that had been studied in the China Sea and adjacent waters. Their occurrence probability are ∼15%, ∼4%, ∼67% and ∼11%, respectively. This is the dominant Pu source in seawater which was transported by the North Equatorial Current and Kuroshio Current and its extension into the China Sea and adjacent waters first from east to west, then from south to north. A sea area to the northeast of Taiwan Island and the Okinawa Trough, shows high 239+240Pu activities and 240Pu/239Pu atom ratios spatial distribution trends, which are related to the intrusion of the Kuroshio Current carrying 239+240Pu from the PPG nuclear weapon tests. The used two end-member mixing model suggests that global fallout and PPG close-in fallout are the main sources of Pu in most of the investigate areas. As the 240Pu/239Pu of global fallout is relatively constant, the change of 240Pu/239Pu ratios in surface sediments of the China Sea and adjacent waters are mainly controlled by the PPG close-in fallout input.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanan Huang
- School of Marine Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai, 519082, PR China; Centre Nacional de Aceleradores (CNA),Sevilla, 41092, Spain.
| | - Xiaoming Sun
- School of Marine Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai, 519082, PR China.
| | - Wei Zhang
- Program in Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, 08540-6654, USA
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Wu J, Zheng X, Chen J, Yang G, Zheng J, Aono T. Distributions and impacts of plutonium in the environment originating from the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant accident: An overview of a decade of studies. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RADIOACTIVITY 2022; 248:106884. [PMID: 35398758 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvrad.2022.106884] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2022] [Revised: 03/27/2022] [Accepted: 03/28/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
This paper reviews the current knowledge on plutonium (Pu) isotopic composition (the atom or activity ratios) and activity concentrations of 238Pu, 239Pu, 240Pu, and 241Pu resulting from the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant (FDNPP) accident in 2011. In this critical review, we document the characteristic values of Pu atom or activity ratios (fingerprints) and present their spatial distributions around the FDNPP site. Based on multiple Pu fingerprints (238Pu/239+240Pu activity ratio, 240Pu/239Pu atom ratio, and 241Pu/239Pu atom ratio), we clarify that Pu contamination from the FDNPP accident occurred in a restricted terrestrial area, while Pu in the Northwest Pacific Ocean is still predominately sourced from the Pacific Proving Grounds (PPG) and global fallout. Using a simple two end-member mixing model, we calculate average contributions of Pu from the FDNPP accident of 13 ± 20% (n = 180) in soil samples, 55 ± 32% (n = 38) in leaf litter samples, and 67 ± 26% (n = 129) in air dust/black substances. In the marine environment, the PPG source average contributions are 45 ± 15% (n = 76) in seawater and 42 ± 12% (n = 48) in sediments. The spatial distributions of Pu atom or activity ratios based on existing studies suggest that: 1) in the terrestrial region investigated 80 km northwest of the FDNPP site, the Pu contamination is mainly observed in an area within a 50 km distance, and 2) in the terrestrial region investigated 60 km southwest of the FDNPP site, the Pu contamination is mainly observed in an area within a 30 km distance. Studies of Cs-bearing radioactive particles indicate that Pu occurs as Pu oxide, and the fuel fragments containing Pu that were released from the reactors to the surrounding environment are associated with micron-scale Cs-bearing radioactive particles. We note that the fractionation between Pu and other radionuclides occurred after release. These new findings about the Pu fingerprints around the FDNPP site will help researchers to establish a reference background database for future environmental risk assessment and geochemical study there.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junwen Wu
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Marine Disaster Prediction and Prevention & Institute of Marine Sciences, Shantou University, Shantou, 515063, China; Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory, Guangzhou, 511458, China
| | - Xuemin Zheng
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Marine Disaster Prediction and Prevention & Institute of Marine Sciences, Shantou University, Shantou, 515063, China
| | - Jisheng Chen
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Marine Disaster Prediction and Prevention & Institute of Marine Sciences, Shantou University, Shantou, 515063, China
| | - Guosheng Yang
- National Institutes for Quantum Science and Technology, 4-9-1 Anagawa, Inage, Chiba, 263-8555, Japan
| | - Jian Zheng
- National Institutes for Quantum Science and Technology, 4-9-1 Anagawa, Inage, Chiba, 263-8555, Japan.
| | - Tatsuo Aono
- National Institutes for Quantum Science and Technology, 4-9-1 Anagawa, Inage, Chiba, 263-8555, Japan
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Lin W, Mo M, Yu K, Du J, Shen H, Wang Y, He X, Feng L. Establishing historical 90Sr activity in seawater of the China seas from 1963 to 2018. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2022; 176:113476. [PMID: 35240458 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2022.113476] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2022] [Revised: 02/16/2022] [Accepted: 02/16/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Historical 90Sr activity in seawater was established in the China seas from 1963 to 2018. Based on the exponential decrease in 90Sr activity in seawater, the effective half-life (EHL) of 90Sr was quantified to be 11.5 ± 1.6 a, 16.5 ± 2.4 a, 27.2 ± 6.2 a, and 26.7 ± 4.3 a in the Bohai Sea, Yellow Sea, East China Sea, and South China Sea, respectively. We found contrasting patterns in the EHL of 90Sr and 137Cs in the marginal seas and open oceans that were closely related to the subtly different pathways of 90Sr and 137Cs in marine environment. Additionally, we demonstrated that Fukushima-derived 90Sr (<0.01 Bq/m3) would be difficult to identify in the China seas. Our study not only provided the key parameter of the EHL in marine models for predicting the 90Sr activity in the China seas in the post-Fukushima era but also enhanced our understanding of 90Sr behavior and its fate in marine environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wuhui Lin
- School of Marine Sciences, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China; Guangxi Laboratory on the study of Coral Reefs in the South China Sea, Nanning 530004, China; Guangxi Key Laboratory of Nuclear Physics and Nuclear Technology, Guangxi Normal University, Guilin 541004, China.
| | - Minting Mo
- School of Marine Sciences, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China
| | - Kefu Yu
- School of Marine Sciences, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China; Guangxi Laboratory on the study of Coral Reefs in the South China Sea, Nanning 530004, China.
| | - Jinqiu Du
- National Marine Environmental Monitoring Center, Dalian 116023, China
| | - Hongtao Shen
- Guangxi Key Laboratory of Nuclear Physics and Nuclear Technology, Guangxi Normal University, Guilin 541004, China
| | - Yinghui Wang
- School of Marine Sciences, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China; Guangxi Laboratory on the study of Coral Reefs in the South China Sea, Nanning 530004, China
| | - Xianwen He
- Radiation-Environment Management and Monitoring Station of Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, Nanning 530222, China
| | - Liangliang Feng
- Radiation-Environment Management and Monitoring Station of Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, Nanning 530222, China
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Feng D, Yang F, Wang X, Zhou X, Liu Z, Liao H. Distribution of plutonium isotopes in soils between two nuclear test sites: Semipalatinsk and Lop Nor. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RADIOACTIVITY 2022; 242:106792. [PMID: 34929510 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvrad.2021.106792] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2021] [Revised: 12/02/2021] [Accepted: 12/06/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Plutonium (Pu) has attracted attention as an environmental tracer due to its radiotoxicity and the possibility of sources linked with nuclear accidents in recent years. Plutonium isotopes (239,240Pu) were detected at trace levels in soils collected from the Xinjiang region located between the Semipalatinsk nuclear test site and China's Lop Nor nuclear test site. Little is known regarding the spatial variation of 239,240Pu in soils from this region. This study reports the use of Sector Field Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (SF-ICP-MS) methods to distinguish between Pu isotopes derived from global fallout and nuclear weapon tests. We found that the 239,240Pu activity concentrations ranged from 0.035 to 1.338 mBq/g; the 240Pu/239Pu atomic ratios were 0.157-0.223 with a weighted average of 0.180 ± 0.002, corresponding with the expected average global fallout ratio of 0.180 ± 0.014. This indicated that global fallout is the major source of Pu in the study region. The 239,240Pu inventories in these soils ranged from 23.67 to 222.7 Bq/m2, corresponding with those from other areas in China and other countries within the latitude range. Our Pu isotope data was supplemented with other published Pu data for soils collected in the vicinity of the Semipalatinsk nuclear test site and Lop Nor nuclear test site. Results indicate that 239,240Pu inventories and 240Pu/239Pu atomic ratios in soils exhibit large variations with distance from the Semipalatinsk nuclear test site. High deposition and accumulation of Pu, and low 240Pu/239Pu ratios were observed in close-in fallout and downwind regions of the Semipalatinsk nuclear test site and China's Lop Nor nuclear test site.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dongxia Feng
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Criteria and Risk Assessment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing, 100012, China
| | - Fang Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Criteria and Risk Assessment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing, 100012, China
| | - Xihuang Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Criteria and Risk Assessment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing, 100012, China
| | - Xingxuan Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Criteria and Risk Assessment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing, 100012, China
| | - Zhiyong Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Radiation Medicine and Protection, School for Radiological and Interdisciplinary Sciences (RAD-X) and Collaborative Innovation Centre of Radiation Medicine of Jiangsu Higher Education Institutions, Soochow University, Suzhou, 215123, China.
| | - Haiqing Liao
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Criteria and Risk Assessment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing, 100012, China.
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