Nanotransducers for Wireless Neuromodulation

Functional nanotransducer-mediated wireless neural modulation techniques

Functional nanomaterials have emerged as versatile nanotransducers for wireless neural modulation because of their minimal invasion and high spatiotemporal resolution. The nanotransducers can convert external excitation sources (e.g. NIR light, x-rays, and magnetic fields) to visible light (or local heat) to activate optogenetic opsins and thermosensitive ion channels for neuromodulation. The present review provides insights into the fundamentals of the mostly used functional nanomaterials in wireless neuromodulation including upconversion nanoparticles, nanoscintillators, and magnetic nanoparticles. We further discussed the recent developments in design strategies of functional nanomaterials with enhanced energy conversion performance that have greatly expanded the field of neuromodulation. We summarized the applications of functional nanomaterials-mediated wireless neuromodulation techniques, including exciting/silencing neurons, modulating brain activity, controlling motor behaviors, and regulating peripheral organ function in mice. Finally, we discussed some key considerations in functional nanotransducer-mediated wireless neuromodulation along with the current challenges and future directions.

Graphdiyne as a Highly Efficient and Neuron-Targeted Photothermal Transducer for in Vivo Neuromodulation

Photothermal modulation of neural activity offers a promising approach for understanding brain circuits and developing therapies for neurological disorders. However, the low neuron selectivity and inefficient light-to-heat conversion of existing photothermal nanomaterials significantly limit their potential for neuromodulation. Here, we report that graphdiyne (GDY) can be developed into an efficient neuron-targeted photothermal transducer for in vivo modulation of neuronal activity through rational surface functionalization. We functionalize GDY with polyethylene glycol (PEG) through noncovalent hydrophobic interactions, followed by antibody conjugation to specifically target the temperature-sensitive transient receptor potential cation channel subfamily V member 1 (TRPV1) on the surface of neural cells. The nanotransducer not only exhibits high photothermal conversion efficiency in the near-infrared region but also shows great TRPV1-targeting capability. This enables photothermal activation of TRPV1, leading to neurotransmitter release in cells and modulation of neural firing in living mice. With its precision and selectivity, the GDY-based transducer provides an innovative avenue for understanding brain function and developing therapeutic strategies for neurodegenerative diseases.

Force-Based Neuromodulation

Technologies for neuromodulation have rapidly developed in the past decade with a particular emphasis on creating noninvasive tools with high spatial and temporal precision. The existence of such tools is critical in the advancement of our understanding of neural circuitry and its influence on behavior and neurological disease. Existing technologies have employed various modalities, such as light, electrical, and magnetic fields, to interface with neural activity. While each method offers unique advantages, many struggle with modulating activity with high spatiotemporal precision without the need for invasive tools. One modality of interest for neuromodulation has been the use of mechanical force. Mechanical force encapsulates a broad range of techniques, ranging from mechanical waves delivered via focused ultrasound (FUS) to torque applied to the cell membrane.Mechanical force can be delivered to the tissue in two forms. The first form is the delivery of a mechanical force through focused ultrasound. Energy delivery facilitated by FUS has been the foundation for many neuromodulation techniques, owing to its precision and penetration depth. FUS possesses the potential to penetrate deeply (∼centimeters) into tissue while maintaining relatively precise spatial resolution, although there exists a trade-off between the penetration depth and spatial resolution. FUS may work synergistically with ultrasound-responsive nanotransducers or devices to produce a secondary energy, such as light, heat, or an electric field, in the target region. This layered technology, first enabled by noninvasive FUS, overcomes the need for bulky invasive implants and also often improves the spatiotemporal precision of light, heat, electrical fields, or other techniques alone. Conversely, the second form of mechanical force modulation is the generation of mechanical force from other modalities, such as light or magnetic fields, for neuromodulation via mechanosensitive proteins. This approach localizes the mechanical force at the cellular level, enhancing the precision of the original energy delivery. Direct interaction of mechanical force with tissue presents translational potential in its ability to interface with endogenous mechanosensitive proteins without the need for transgenes.In this Account, we categorize force-mediated neuromodulation into two categories: 1) methods where mechanical force is the primary stimulus and 2) methods where mechanical force is generated as a secondary stimulus in response to other modalities. We summarize the general design principles and current progress of each respective approach. We identify the key advantages of the limitations of each technology, particularly noting features in spatiotemporal precision, the need for transgene delivery, and the potential outlook. Finally, we highlight recent technologies that leverage mechanical force for enhanced spatiotemporal precision and advanced applications.

Nanoparticle-based optical interfaces for retinal neuromodulation: a review

Degeneration of photoreceptors in the retina is a leading cause of blindness, but commonly leaves the retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) and/or bipolar cells extant. Consequently, these cells are an attractive target for the invasive electrical implants colloquially known as "bionic eyes." However, after more than two decades of concerted effort, interfaces based on conventional electrical stimulation approaches have delivered limited efficacy, primarily due to the current spread in retinal tissue, which precludes high-acuity vision. The ideal prosthetic solution would be less invasive, provide single-cell resolution and an ability to differentiate between different cell types. Nanoparticle-mediated approaches can address some of these requirements, with particular attention being directed at light-sensitive nanoparticles that can be accessed via the intrinsic optics of the eye. Here we survey the available known nanoparticle-based optical transduction mechanisms that can be exploited for neuromodulation. We review the rapid progress in the field, together with outstanding challenges that must be addressed to translate these techniques to clinical practice. In particular, successful translation will likely require efficient delivery of nanoparticles to stable and precisely defined locations in the retinal tissues. Therefore, we also emphasize the current literature relating to the pharmacokinetics of nanoparticles in the eye. While considerable challenges remain to be overcome, progress to date shows great potential for nanoparticle-based interfaces to revolutionize the field of visual prostheses.

Beyond the limiting gap length: peripheral nerve regeneration through implantable nerve guidance conduits

Peripheral nerve damage results in the loss of sensorimotor and autonomic functions, which is a significant burden to patients. Furthermore, nerve injuries greater than the limiting gap length require surgical repair. Although autografts are the preferred clinical choice, their usage is impeded by their limited availability, dimensional mismatch, and the sacrifice of another functional donor nerve. Accordingly, nerve guidance conduits, which are tubular scaffolds engineered to provide a biomimetic environment for nerve regeneration, have emerged as alternatives to autografts. Consequently, a few nerve guidance conduits have received clinical approval for the repair of short-mid nerve gaps but failed to regenerate limiting gap damage, which represents the bottleneck of this technology. Thus, it is still necessary to optimize the morphology and constituent materials of conduits. This review summarizes the recent advances in nerve conduit technology. Several manufacturing techniques and conduit designs are discussed, with emphasis on the structural improvement of simple hollow tubes, additive manufacturing techniques, and decellularized grafts. The main objective of this review is to provide a critical overview of nerve guidance conduit technology to support regeneration in long nerve defects, promote future developments, and speed up its clinical translation as a reliable alternative to autografts.

Recent Advances in Implantable Neural Interfaces for Multimodal Electrical Neuromodulation

Electrical neuromodulation plays a pivotal role in enhancing patient outcomes among individuals suffering from neurological disorders. Implantable neural interfaces are vital components of the electrical neuromodulation system to ensure desirable performance; However, conventional devices are limited to a single function and are constructed with bulky and rigid materials, which often leads to mechanical incompatibility with soft tissue and an inability to adapt to the dynamic and complex 3D structures of biological systems. In addition, current implantable neural interfaces utilized in clinical settings primarily rely on wire-based techniques, which are associated with complications such as increased risk of infection, limited positioning options, and movement restrictions. Here, the state-of-art applications of electrical neuromodulation are presented. Material schemes and device structures that can be employed to develop robust and multifunctional neural interfaces, including flexibility, stretchability, biodegradability, self-healing, self-rolling, or morphing are discussed. Furthermore, multimodal wireless neuromodulation techniques, including optoelectronics, mechano-electrics, magnetoelectrics, inductive coupling, and electrochemically based self-powered devices are reviewed. In the end, future perspectives are given.

Emerging optogenetics technologies in biomedical applications

Optogenetics is a cutting-edge technology that merges light control and genetics to achieve targeted control of tissue cells. Compared to traditional methods, optogenetics offers several advantages in terms of time and space precision, accuracy, and reduced damage to the research object. Currently, optogenetics is primarily used in pathway research, drug screening, gene expression regulation, and the stimulation of molecule release to treat various diseases. The selection of light-sensitive proteins is the most crucial aspect of optogenetic technology; structural changes occur or downstream channels are activated to achieve signal transmission or factor release, allowing efficient and controllable disease treatment. In this review, we examine the extensive research conducted in the field of biomedicine concerning optogenetics, including the selection of light-sensitive proteins, the study of carriers and delivery devices, and the application of disease treatment. Additionally, we offer critical insights and future implications of optogenetics in the realm of clinical medicine.

Illuminating the Brain: Advances and Perspectives in Optoelectronics for Neural Activity Monitoring and Modulation

Optogenetic modulation of brain neural activity that combines optical and electrical modes in a unitary neural system has recently gained robust momentum. Controlling illumination spatial coverage, designing light-activated modulators, and developing wireless light delivery and data transmission are crucial for maximizing the use of optical neuromodulation. To this end, biocompatible electrodes with enhanced optoelectrical performance, device integration for multiplexed addressing, wireless transmission, and multimodal operation in soft systems have been developed. This review provides an outlook for uniformly illuminating large brain areas while spatiotemporally imaging the neural responses upon optoelectrical stimulation with little artifacts. Representative concepts and important breakthroughs, such as head-mounted illumination, multiple implanted optical fibers, and micro-light-delivery devices, are discussed. Examples of techniques that incorporate electrophysiological monitoring and optoelectrical stimulation are presented. Challenges and perspectives are posed for further research efforts toward high-density optoelectrical neural interface modulation, with the potential for nonpharmacological neurological disease treatments and wireless optoelectrical stimulation.

Magnetoelectric nanoparticles shape modulates their electrical output

Core-shell magnetoelectric nanoparticles (MENPs) have recently gained popularity thanks to their capability in inducing a local electric polarization upon an applied magnetic field and vice versa. This work estimates the magnetoelectrical behavior, in terms of magnetoelectric coupling coefficient (αME), via finite element analysis of MENPs with different shapes under either static (DC bias) and time-variant (AC bias) external magnetic fields. With this approach, the dependence of the magnetoelectrical performance on the MENPs geometrical features can be directly derived. Results show that MENPs with a more elongated morphology exhibits a superior αME if compared with spherical nanoparticles of similar volume, under both stimulation conditions analyzed. This response is due to the presence of a larger surface area at the interface between the magnetostrictive core and piezoelectric shell, and to the MENP geometrical orientation along the direction of the magnetic field. These findings pave a new way for the design of novel high-aspect ratio magnetic nanostructures with an improved magnetoelectric behaviour.

A tissue-engineered neural interface with photothermal functionality

Neural interfaces are well-established as a tool to understand the behaviour of the nervous system via recording and stimulation of living neurons, as well as serving as neural prostheses. Conventional neural interfaces based on metals and carbon-based materials are generally optimised for high conductivity; however, a mechanical mismatch between the interface and the neural environment can significantly reduce long-term neuromodulation efficacy by causing an inflammatory response. This paper presents a soft composite material made of gelatin methacryloyl (GelMA) containing graphene oxide (GO) conjugated with gold nanorods (AuNRs). The soft hydrogel presents stiffness within the neural environment range of modulus below 5 kPa, while the AuNRs, when exposed to light in the near infrared range, provide a photothermal response that can be used to improve the spatial and temporal precision of neuromodulation. These favourable properties can be maintained at safer optical power levels when combined with electrical stimulation. In this paper we provide mechanical and biological characterization of the optical activity of the GO-AuNR composite hydrogel. The optical functionality of the material has been evaluated via photothermal stimulation of explanted rat retinal tissue. The outcomes achieved with this study encourage further investigation into optical and electrical costimulation parameters for a range of biomedical applications.

Nanotransducer-Enabled Deep-Brain Neuromodulation with NIR-II Light

The second near-infrared window (NIR-II window), which ranges from 1000 to 1700 nm in wavelength, exhibits distinctive advantages of reduced light scattering and thus deep penetration in biological tissues in comparison to the visible spectrum. The NIR-II window has been widely employed for deep-tissue fluorescence imaging in the past decade. More recently, deep-brain neuromodulation has been demonstrated in the NIR-II window by leveraging nanotransducers that can efficiently convert brain-penetrant NIR-II light into heat. In this Perspective, we discuss the principles and potential applications of this NIR-II deep-brain neuromodulation technique, together with its advantages and limitations compared with other existing optical methods for deep-brain neuromodulation. We also point out a few future directions where the advances in materials science and bioengineering can expand the capability and utility of NIR-II neuromodulation methods.

Optical control of neuronal activities with photoswitchable nanovesicles

Precise modulation of neuronal activity by neuroactive molecules is essential for understanding brain circuits and behavior. However, tools for highly controllable molecular release are lacking. Here, we developed a photoswitchable nanovesicle with azobenzene-containing phosphatidylcholine (azo-PC), coined 'azosome', for neuromodulation. Irradiation with 365 nm light triggers the trans-to-cis isomerization of azo-PC, resulting in a disordered lipid bilayer with decreased thickness and cargo release. Irradiation with 455 nm light induces reverse isomerization and switches the release off. Real-time fluorescence imaging shows controllable and repeatable cargo release within seconds (< 3 s). Importantly, we demonstrate that SKF-81297, a dopamine D1-receptor agonist, can be repeatedly released from the azosome to activate cultures of primary striatal neurons. Azosome shows promise for precise optical control over the molecular release and can be a valuable tool for molecular neuroscience studies.

Optical control of neuronal activities with photoswitchable nanovesicles

Precise modulation of neuronal activity by neuroactive molecules is essential for understanding brain circuits and behavior. However, tools for highly controllable molecular release are lacking. Here, we developed a photoswitchable nanovesicle with azobenzene-containing phosphatidylcholine (azo-PC), coined 'azosome', for neuromodulation. Irradiation with 365 nm light triggers the trans-to-cis isomerization of azo-PC, resulting in a disordered lipid bilayer with decreased thickness and cargo release. Irradiation with 455 nm light induces reverse isomerization and switches the release off. Real-time fluorescence imaging shows controllable and repeatable cargo release within seconds (< 3 s). Importantly, we demonstrate that SKF-81297, a dopamine D1-receptor agonist, can be repeatedly released from the azosome to activate cultures of primary striatal neurons. Azosome shows promise for precise optical control over the molecular release and can be a valuable tool for molecular neuroscience studies.

Transcranial Nongenetic Neuromodulation via Bioinspired Vesicle-Enabled Precise NIR-II Optical Stimulation

Regulating the activity of specific neurons is essentially important in neurocircuit dissection and neuropathy therapy. As a recently developed strategy, nanomaterial-enabled nongenetic neuromodulations that realize remote physical stimuli have made vast progress and shown great clinical potential. However, minimal invasiveness and high spatiotemporal resolution are still challenging for nongenetic neuromodulation. Herein, a second near-infrared (NIR-II)-light-induced transcranial nongenetic neurostimulation via bioinspired nanovesicles is reported. The rationally designed vesicles are obtained from vesicle-membrane-confined enzymatic reactions. This study demonstrates that the vesicle-enabled NIR-II photothermal stimuli can elicit neuronal signaling dynamics with precise spatiotemporal control and thus evoke defined neural circuits in nontransgenic mice. Moreover, the vesicle-mediated NIR-II optical stimulation can regulate mouse motor behaviors with minimal invasiveness by eliminating light-emitting implants. Furthermore, the biological modulation is integrated with photoacoustic brain imaging, realizing navigational, and efficient neuromodulation. Such transcranial and precise NIR-II optical neuromodulation mediated by bioinspired vesicles shows the potential for the optical-theranostics of neurological diseases in nontransgenic organisms.

Highly efficient green up-conversion emission from fluoroindate glass nanoparticles functionalized with a biocompatible polymer

Up-conversion nanoparticles have garnered lots of attention due to their ability to transform low energy light (near-infrared) into high-energy (visible) light, enabling their potential use as remote visible light nano-transducers. However, their low efficiency restricts their full potential. To overcome this disadvantage, fluoroindate glasses (InF3) doped at different molar concentrations of Yb3+ and Er3+ were obtained using the melting-quenching technique, reaching the highest green emission at 1.4Yb and 1.75Er (mol%), which corresponds to the 4S3/2 → 4I15/2 (540-552 nm) transition. The particles possess the amorphous nature of the glass and have a high thermostability, as corroborated by thermogravimetric assay. Furthermore, the spectral decay curve analysis showed efficient energy transfer as the rare-earth ions varied. This was corroborated with the absolute quantum yield (QY) obtained (85%) upon excitation at 385 nm with QYEr = 17% and QYYb = 68%. Additionally, InF3-1.4Yb-1.75Er was milled and functionalized using poly(ethylene glycol) to impart biocompatibility, which is essential for biomedical applications. Such functionalization was verified using FTIR, TG/DSC, and XRD.

Micropyramid structured photo capacitive interfaces

Optically driven electronic neuromodulation devices are a novel tool in basic research and offer new prospects in medical therapeutic applications. Optimal operation of such devices requires efficient light capture and charge generation, effective electrical communication across the device's bioelectronic interface, conformal adhesion to the target tissue, and mechanical stability of the device during the lifetime of the implant-all of which can be tuned by spatial structuring of the device. We demonstrate a 3D structured opto-bioelectronic device-an organic electrolytic photocapacitor spatially designed by depositing the active device layers on an inverted micropyramid-shaped substrate. Ultrathin, transparent, and flexible micropyramid-shaped foil was fabricated by chemical vapour deposition of parylene C on silicon moulds containing arrays of inverted micropyramids, followed by a peel-off procedure. The capacitive current delivered by the devices showed a strong dependency on the underlying spatial structure. The device performance was evaluated by numerical modelling. We propose that the developed numerical model can be used as a basis for the design of future functional 3D design of opto-bioelectronic devices and electrodes.

Review of Noninvasive or Minimally Invasive Deep Brain Stimulation

Brain stimulation is a critical technique in neuroscience research and clinical application. Traditional transcranial brain stimulation techniques, such as transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS), and deep brain stimulation (DBS) have been widely investigated in neuroscience for decades. However, TMS and tDCS have poor spatial resolution and penetration depth, and DBS requires electrode implantation in deep brain structures. These disadvantages have limited the clinical applications of these techniques. Owing to developments in science and technology, substantial advances in noninvasive and precise deep stimulation have been achieved by neuromodulation studies. Second-generation brain stimulation techniques that mainly rely on acoustic, electronic, optical, and magnetic signals, such as focused ultrasound, temporal interference, near-infrared optogenetic, and nanomaterial-enabled magnetic stimulation, offer great prospects for neuromodulation. This review summarized the mechanisms, development, applications, and strengths of these techniques and the prospects and challenges in their development. We believe that these second-generation brain stimulation techniques pave the way for brain disorder therapy.

Graphene and graphene-related materials as brain electrodes

Neural electrodes are used for acquiring neuron signals in brain-machine interfaces, and they are crucial for next-generation neuron engineering and related medical applications. Thus, developing flexible, stable and high-resolution neural electrodes will play an important role in stimulation, acquisition, recording and analysis of signals. Compared with traditional metallic electrodes, electrodes based on graphene and other two-dimensional materials have attracted wide attention in electrophysiological recording and stimulation due to their excellent physical properties such as unique flexibility, low resistance, and high optical transparency. In this review, we have reviewed the recent progress of electrodes based on graphene, graphene/polymer compounds and graphene-related materials for neuron signal recording, stimulation, and related optical signal coupling technology, which provides an outlook on the role of electrodes in the nanotechnology-neuron interface as well as medical diagnosis.