Human Thyroid Oxidases genes promoter activity in thyrocytes does not appear to be functionally dependent on Thyroid Transcription Factor-1 or Pax8

Intrathyroidal feedforward and feedback network regulating thyroid hormone synthesis and secretion

Thyroid hormones (THs), including T4 and T3, are produced and released by the thyroid gland under the stimulation of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH). The homeostasis of THs is regulated via the coordination of the hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis, plasma binding proteins, and local metabolism in tissues. TH synthesis and secretion in the thyrocytes-containing thyroid follicles are exquisitely regulated by an elaborate molecular network comprising enzymes, transporters, signal transduction machineries, and transcription factors. In this article, we synthesized the relevant literature, organized and dissected the complex intrathyroidal regulatory network into structures amenable to functional interpretation and systems-level modeling. Multiple intertwined feedforward and feedback motifs were identified and described, centering around the transcriptional and posttranslational regulations involved in TH synthesis and secretion, including those underpinning the Wolff-Chaikoff and Plummer effects and thyroglobulin-mediated feedback regulation. A more thorough characterization of the intrathyroidal network from a systems biology perspective, including its topology, constituent network motifs, and nonlinear quantitative properties, can help us to better understand and predict the thyroidal dynamics in response to physiological signals, therapeutic interventions, and environmental disruptions.

DuOx2 Promoter Regulation by Hormones, Transcriptional Factors and the Coactivator TAZ

The production of H2O2, which is essential to thyroid hormone synthesis, involves two NADPH oxidases: dual oxidases 1 and 2 (DuOx1 and DuOx2). A functional study with human DuOx genes and their 5'-flanking regions showed that DuOx1 and -2 promoters are different from thyroid-specific gene promoters. Furthermore, their transcriptional activities are not restricted to thyroid cells. While regulation of Tg (thyroglobulin) and TPO (thyroperoxidase) expression have been extensively studied, DuOx2 promoter regulation by hormones and transcriptional factors need to be more explored. Herein we investigated the role of TSH, insulin and insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1), as well as the cAMP effect on DuOx2 promoter (ptx41) activity in transfected rat thyroid cell lines (PCCL3). We also assessed DuOx2 promoter activity in the presence of transcriptional factors crucial to thyroid development such as TTF-1 (thyroid transcription factor 1), PAX8, CREB, DREAM, Nkx2.5 and the coactivator TAZ in HeLa and HEK 293T-transfected cells. Our results show that TSH and forskolin, which increase cAMP in thyroid cells, stimulated DuOx2 promoter activity. IGF-1 led to pronounced stimulation, while insulin induction was not statistically different from DuOx2 promoter basal activity. All transcriptional factors selected for this work and coactivator TAZ, except DREAM, stimulated DuOx2 promoter activity. Moreover, Nkx2.5 and TAZ synergistically increased DuOx2 promoter activity. In conclusion, we show that DuOx2 expression is regulated by hormones and transcription factors involved in thyroid organogenesis and carcinogenesis, reinforcing the importance of the control of H2O2 generation in the thyroid.

Thyroid transcription factors in development, differentiation and disease

Identification of the thyroid transcription factors (TTFs), NKX2-1, FOXE1, PAX8 and HHEX, has considerably advanced our understanding of thyroid development, congenital thyroid disorders and thyroid cancer. The TTFs are fundamental to proper formation of the thyroid gland and for maintaining the functional differentiated state of the adult thyroid; however, they are not individually required for precursor cell commitment to a thyroid fate. Although knowledge of the mechanisms involved in thyroid development has increased, the full complement of genes involved in thyroid gland specification and the signals that trigger expression of the genes that encode the TTFs remain unknown. The mechanisms involved in thyroid organogenesis and differentiation have provided clues to identifying the genes that are involved in human congenital thyroid disorders and thyroid cancer. Mutations in the genes that encode the TTFs, as well as polymorphisms and epigenetic modifications, have been associated with thyroid pathologies. Here, we summarize the roles of the TTFs in thyroid development and the mechanisms by which they regulate expression of the genes involved in thyroid differentiation. We also address the implications of mutations in TTFs in thyroid diseases and in diseases not related to the thyroid gland.

Roles of DUOX-mediated hydrogen peroxide in metabolism, host defense, and signaling

SIGNIFICANCE

Among the NADPH oxidases, the dual oxidases, DUOX1 and DUOX2, constitute a distinct subfamily initially called thyroid oxidases, based on their high level of expression in thyroid tissue. Genetic alterations causing inherited hypothyroidism clearly demonstrate their physiological implication in thyroid hormonogenesis. However, a growing list of biological functions triggered by DUOX-dependent reactive oxygen species (ROS) in highly differentiated mucosae have recently emerged.

RECENT ADVANCES

A role of DUOX enzymes as ROS providers for lactoperoxidase-mediated killing of invading pathogens has been well established and a role in bacteria chemorepulsion has been proposed. Control of DUOX expression and activity by inflammatory molecules and immune receptor activation consolidates their contributions to innate immune defense of mucosal surfaces. Recent studies conducted in ancestral organisms have identified effectors of DUOX redox signaling involved in wound healing including epithelium regeneration and leukocyte recruitment. Moreover, local generation of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) by DUOX has also been suggested to constitute a positive feedback loop to promote receptor signaling activation.

CRITICAL ISSUES

A correct balance between H2O2 generation and detoxification mechanisms must be properly maintained to avoid oxidative damages. Overexpression of DUOX genes has been associated with an increasing number of chronic inflammatory diseases. Furthermore, H2O2-mediated DNA damage supports a mutagenic function promoting tumor development.

FUTURE DIRECTIONS

Despite the high sequence similarity shared between DUOX1 and DUOX2, the two isoforms present distinct regulations, tissue expression and catalytic functions. The phenotypic characterization of novel DUOX/DUOXA invalidated animal models will be very useful for defining their medical importance in pathological conditions.

New insights into FoxE1 functions: identification of direct FoxE1 targets in thyroid cells

BACKGROUND

FoxE1 is a thyroid-specific forkhead transcription factor essential for thyroid gland development, as well as for the maintenance of the thyroid differentiated state in adults. FoxE1 recognizes and binds to a short DNA sequence present in thyroglobulin (Tg) and thyroperoxidase (Tpo) promoters, but FoxE1 binding to regulatory regions other than Tg and Tpo promoters remains almost unexplored. Improving knowledge of the regulatory functions of FoxE1 is necessary to clarify its role in endocrine syndromes and cancer susceptibility.

METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDING

In order to further investigate downstream FoxE1 targets, we performed a genome-wide expression screening after knocking-down FoxE1 and obtained new insights into FoxE1 transcriptional networks in thyroid follicular cells. After validation, we confirmed Adamts9, Cdh1, Duox2 and S100a4 as upregulated genes and Casp4, Creld2, Dusp5, Etv5, Hsp5a, Nr4a2 and Tm4sf1 as downregulated genes when FoxE1 was silenced. In promoter regions of putative FoxE1-regulated genes and also in the promoters of the classical thyroid genes Nis, Pax8 and Titf1, we performed an in silico search of the FoxE1 binding motif that was in close proximity to the NF1/CTF binding sequence, as previously described for other forkhead factors. Using chromatin immunoprecipitation we detected specific in vivo FoxE1 binding to novel regulatory regions in two relevant thyroid genes, Nis and Duox2. Moreover, we demonstrated simultaneous binding of FoxE1 and NF1/CTF to the Nis upstream enhancer region, as well as a clear functional activation of the Nis promoter by both transcription factors.

CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE

In search for potential downstream mediators of FoxE1 function in thyroid cells, we identified two novel direct FoxE1 target genes. To our knowledge, this is the first evidence regarding the implication of Nis and Duox2 in executing the transcriptional program triggered by FoxE1. Furthermore, this study points out the important role of FoxE1 in the regulation of a large number of genes in thyroid cells.

Thyroid hydrogen peroxide production is enhanced by the Th2 cytokines, IL-4 and IL-13, through increased expression of the dual oxidase 2 and its maturation factor DUOXA2

The dual oxidases (DUOX) 1 and 2 constitute the major components of the thyroid H(2)O(2)-generating system required for thyroid hormone synthesis. With their maturation factor, DUOXA1 or DUOXA2, they share the same bidirectional promoter allowing coexpression of DUOX/DUOXA in the same tissue. However, the molecular mechanisms regulating their transcription in the human thyroid gland are not well characterized yet. Inflammatory molecules associated with autoimmune thyroid diseases have been shown to repress the thyroid function by down-regulating the expression of the major thyroid differentiation markers. These findings led us to investigate the effects of the main cytokines involved in Hashimoto thyroiditis (IFN-γ) and Graves' diseases (IL-4/IL-13) on the transcriptional regulation of DUOX and their corresponding DUOXA genes in thyroid cells. Human thyrocytes exposed to the Th2 cytokines IL-4 and IL-13 showed up-regulation of DUOX2 and DUOXA2 genes but not DUOX1/DUOXA1. The DUOX2/DUOXA2 induction was rapid and associated with a significant increase of calcium-stimulated extracellular H(2)O(2) generation. IFN-γ treatment inhibited DUOX gene expression and repressed the Th2 cytokine-dependent DUOX2/DUOXA2 expression. In another DUOX-expressing model, the human intestinal Caco-2 cell line, expression of DUOX2 and DUOXA2 mRNA was also positively modulated by IL-4 and IL-13. Analysis of the IL-4 signaling pathway revealed that the JAK1-STAT6 cascade activated by the IL-4 type 2 receptor is required for DUOX2/DUOXA2 induction. The present data open new perspectives for a better understanding of the pathophysiology of thyroid autoimmune diseases considering DUOX2-mediated oxidative damages.

Functional inactivation of thyroid transcription factor-1 in PCCl3 thyroid cells

Thyroid transcription factor-1 (TTF-1) is a key regulator of thyroid development and function. In order to identify the genes whose expression depends on TTF-1 transcriptional activity within the thyrocyte we analyzed the consequence of the functional inactivation of this factor in PCCl3 cells. The expression of a fusion protein composed of the DNA binding domain of TTF-1 and of the strong repressive domain of the engrailed protein resulted in a dramatic loss of epithelial cell morphology and in proliferation arrest. These changes were reversed when the inhibition of endogenous TTF-1 was relieved. No change was observed when a similar fusion protein containing point mutations abolishing DNA binding activity was produced in the cells. Besides the expected down-regulation of expression of the main genes linked to the differentiated thyroid function, we observed a decreased expression of the transcription factors Hhex, Pax 8 and TTF-2 and of E-cadherin. By contrast, both ThOX-1 and DUOXA-1 genes were up-regulated, as well as the ones encoding vimentin and several proteins involved in cell cycle arrest. Our data thus extend the known roles of TTF-1 in thyroid development and in the expression of differentiated function in the adult organ to the control of epithelial morphology and of cell division in mature thyrocytes.

Dual oxidase, hydrogen peroxide and thyroid diseases

The thyroid gland is a unique endocrine organ that requires hydrogen peroxide (H(2)O(2)) for thyroid hormone formation. The molecule for H(2)O(2) production in the thyroid gland has been known as dual oxidase 2 (DUOX2). Recently, NADPH oxidase 4 (NOX4), a homolog of the NOX family, was added as a new intracellular source of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the human thyroid gland. This review focuses on the recent progress of the DUOX system and its possible contribution to human thyroid diseases. Also, we discuss human thyroid diseases related to abnormal H(2)O(2) generation. The DUOX molecule contains peroxidase-like and NADPH oxidase-like domains. Human thyroid gland also contains DUOX1 that shares 83% similarity with the DUOX2 gene. However, thyroid DUOX1 protein appears to play a minor role in H(2)O(2) production. DUOX proteins require DUOX maturation or activation factors (DUOXA1 or 2) for proper translocation of DUOX from the endoplasmic reticulum to the apical plasma membrane, where H(2)O(2) production takes place. Thyroid cells contain antioxidants to protect cells from the H(2)O(2)-mediated oxidative damage. Loss of this balance may result in thyroid cell dysfunction and thyroid diseases. Mutation of either DUOX2 or DUOXA2 gene is a newly recognized cause of hypothyroidism due to insufficient H(2)O(2) production. Papillary thyroid carcinoma, the most common thyroid cancer, is closely linked to the increased ROS production by NOX4. Hashimoto's thyroiditis, a common autoimmune thyroid disease in women, becomes conspicuous when iodide intake increases. This phenomenon may be explained by the abnormality of iodide-induced H(2)O(2) or other ROS in susceptible individuals. Discovery of DUOX proteins and NOX4 provides us with valuable tools for a better understanding of pathophysiology of prevalent thyroid diseases.

The Role of DUOX Isozymes in the Respiratory Tract Epithelium

Increasingly, reactive oxygen species such as superoxide and hydrogen peroxide are recognized to be intentionally generated intracellularly to serve important cellular functions. A key protein family responsible for the regulated generation of reactive oxygen species in multiple cell types is the NOX/DUOX enzyme family. Two family members, DUOX1 and DUOX2, appear to be highly expressed in tissues of endodermal origin including the thyroid, respiratory tract, and gastrointestinal tract. In this chapter, we will focus our review on DUOX proteins in the respiratory tract. We will discuss a brief history of the discovery of the DUOX isoforms, the estimated hydrogen peroxide-generating capacity of DUOX in respiratory tract epithelium, putative functions of the DUOX enzymes, and some regulatory factors responsible for DUOX gene expression and oxidase activity.

Regulation of Nox and Duox enzymatic activity and expression

In recent years, it has become clear that reactive oxygen species (ROS, which include superoxide, hydrogen peroxide, and other metabolites) are produced in biological systems. Rather than being simply a by-product of aerobic metabolism, it is now recognized that specific enzymes--the Nox (NADPH oxidase) and Duox (Dual oxidase) enzymes--seem to have the sole function of generating ROS in a carefully regulated manner, and key roles in signal transduction, immune function, hormone biosynthesis, and other normal biological functions are being uncovered. The prototypical Nox is the respiratory burst oxidase or phagocyte oxidase, which generates large amounts of superoxide and other reactive species in the phagosomes of neutrophils and macrophages, playing a central role in innate immunity by killing microbes. This enzyme system has been extensively studied over the past two decades, and provides a basis for comparison with the more recently described Nox and Duox enzymes, which generate ROS in a variety of cells and tissues. This review first considers the structure and regulation of the respiratory burst oxidase, and then reviews recent studies relating to the regulation of the activity of the novel Nox/Duox enzymes. The regulation of Nox and Duox expression in tissues and by specific stimuli is also considered here. An accompanying review considers biological and pathological roles of the Nox family of enzymes.