Distribution of fatty acids and phospholipids in different table cuts and co-products from New Zealand pasture-fed Wagyu-dairy cross beef cattle

Muscle biopsy long-chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid compositions, IMF and FMP in Australian pasture-based Bowen Genetics Forest Pastoral Angus, Hereford, and Wagyu Beef Cattle

BACKGROUND

We investigated breed and gender variations in the compositions of long-chain (≥ C20) omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC omega-3 PUFA), fat melting point (FMP) and intramuscular fat (IMF) contents in biopsy samples of the M. longissimus dorsi muscle of grazing beef cattle. The hypothesis that biopsy compositions of health-beneficial LC omega-3 PUFA, FMP and IMF in a pasture-based production system will vary with breed, was tested. Muscle biopsies were taken from 127 yearling pasture-based Angus, Hereford, and Wagyu heifers and young bulls exclusive to the Australian Bowen Genetics Forest Pastoral breeding stud averaging 12 ± 2.43 months of age and under the same management routine.

RESULTS

Breed had a significant influence on IMF, FMP, and the compositions of oleic acid, α-linolenic acid (ALA), eicosapentaenoic (EPA), docosahexaenoic (DHA), docosapentaenoic (DPA), and total EPA + DHA + DPA in the M. longissimus dorsi muscle biopsies (P ≤ 0.03). The Wagyu breed had the highest (11.1%) and Hereford the lowest (5.9%) IMF (P = 0.03). The reverse trend was observed in FMP values where the Hereford breed had the highest (55 °C), Angus intermediate (46.5 °C), and Wagyu the lowest (33 °C) FMP. The Wagyu and Angus breeds had similar oleic fatty acid (18:1n-9) content, while the Hereford breed had the lowest (P < 0.01). The highest ALA, DPA, total EPA + DHA, total EPA + DHA + DPA and total ALA + EPA + DHA + DPA contents were detected in the Wagyu breed (P ≤ 0.03). The Hereford had similar EPA and DPA contents to the Angus (P ≥ 0.46). Total EPA + DHA + DPA contents in Wagyu, Angus, and Hereford were 28.8, 21.5, and 22.1 mg/100g tissue (P = 0.01), respectively. Sex was an important source of variation that influenced LC omega-3 PUFA composition, FMP and IMF, where yearling heifers had higher IMF (11.9% vs 5.3%), lower FMP (33°C vs 37°C), and higher LC omega-3 PUFA than bulls.

CONCLUSION

All the results taken together indicate that the Wagyu breed at 28.8 mg/100g tissue, was the closest to meeting the Australia and New Zealand recommended source level threshold of 30 mg/100g tissue of health-beneficial ≥ C20 omega-3 FA content. Since gender was a significant determinant of LC omega-3 PUFA composition, IMF content and FMP, it should be factored into enhancement strategies of healthy meat eating quality traits in grazing cattle. These findings also suggest that the Bowen Genetics Forest Pastoral beef cattle studs are important sources of LC omega-3 PUFA that can be used to cover the deficit in these health claimable fatty acids in Western diets.

Mānuka Oil vs. Rosemary Oil: Antimicrobial Efficacies in Wagyu and Commercial Beef against Selected Pathogenic Microbes

Essential oils possessing antimicrobial characteristics have acquired considerable interest as an alternative to chemical preservatives in food products. This research hypothesizes that mānuka (MO) and kānuka (KO) oils may possess antimicrobial characteristics and have the potential to be used as natural preservatives for food applications. Initial experimentation was conducted to characterize MOs (with 5, 25, and 40% triketone contents), rosemary oil (RO) along with kanuka oil (KO) for their antibacterial efficacy against selected Gram-negative (Salmonella spp. and Escherichia coli), and Gram-positive (Listeria monocytogenes and Staphylococcus aureus) bacteria through disc diffusion and broth dilution assays. All MOs showed a higher antimicrobial effect against L. monocytogenes and S. aureus with a minimum inhibitory concentration below 0.04%, compared with KO (0.63%) and RO (2.5%). In chemical composition, α-pinene in KO, 1, 8 cineole in RO, calamenene, and leptospermone in MO were the major compounds, confirmed through Gas-chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis. Further, the antimicrobial effect of MO and RO in vacuum-packed beef pastes prepared from New Zealand commercial breed (3% fat) and wagyu (12% fat) beef tenderloins during 16 days of refrigerated storage was compared with sodium nitrate (SN) and control (without added oil). In both meat types, compared with the SN-treated and control samples, lower growth of L. monocytogenes and S. aureus in MO- and RO- treated samples was observed. However, for Salmonella and E. coli, RO treatment inhibited microbial growth most effectively. The results suggest the potential use of MO as a partial replacement for synthetic preservatives like sodium nitrate in meats, especially against L. monocytogenes and S. aureus.

Protein and Lipid Digestibility of Pasture-Raised and Grain-Finished Beef: An In Vitro Comparison

This study compared the digestibility of protein and fat components of pasture-raised and grain-finished beef using an in vitro oral-gastro-small intestinal digestion model. Two commonly consumed beef cuts, tenderloin (Psoas major) and striploin (Longissimus dorsi) were selected for this study. There were no substantial differences between the pasture-raised and grain-finished cuts of meat in terms of protein digestibility, as shown by the protein and peptide breakdown (observed through SDS-PAGE) and the degree of hydrolysis as measured by free amino nitrogen. Tenderloin, however, showed significantly (p < 0.05) higher overall protein digestibility than striploin. Both striploin and tenderloin digests from pasture-raised beef released significantly (p < 0.05) higher total amounts of free long-chain n−3 PUFAs and lower amounts of many free saturated fatty acids, notably palmitic and myristic acids, than those from grain-finished animals. The results suggest greater health benefits from consuming pasture-raised beef, particularly tenderloin.

Application of Mass Spectrometry for Determining the Geographic Production Area of Wagyu Beef

Japanese Black cattle (Japanese Wagyu) beef is attracting attention for its aroma and marbling, and its handling is increasing worldwide. Here, we focused on the origin discrimination of Wagyu beef and analyzed the nutritional components of Japanese Wagyu (produced in multiple prefectures of Japan), Hybrid Wagyu (a cross between Angus and Wagyu cattle born in Australia and transported to Japan), and Australian Wagyu beef using mass spectrometry (MS). Triple-quadrupole liquid chromatography-MS was used to clarify the molecular species of lipids in Wagyu beef. Fourteen classes of lipids were separated, and 128 different triacylglycerides (TGs) were detected. A simple comparative analysis of these TGs using high-performance liquid chromatography revealed significantly higher levels of triolein (C18:1/C18:1/C18:1; abbreviated OOO) and C18:1/C18:1/C16:1 (OOPo) in Japanese Wagyu. Wagyu elements beef were comprehensively analyzed using inductively coupled plasma (ICP)-MS and ICP-optical emission spectrometry. We found significant differences in the rubidium, cesium, and lithium levels of Japanese and Australian Wagyu beef. On comparing metabolites using gas chromatography-MS, we identified significant differences in the levels of amino acids and other components of the Japanese and Australian Wagyu beef. These results suggest the possibility of determining the origin of Wagyu cattle breeds using MS and genetic discrimination.

Are n-3 PUFAs from Microalgae Incorporated into Membrane and Storage Lipids in Pig Muscle Tissues?-A Lipidomic Approach

For the study of molecular mechanisms of to lipid transport and storage in relation to dietary effects, lipidomics has been rarely used in farm animal research. A feeding study with pigs (German Landrace sows) and supplementation of microalgae (Schizochytrium sp.) was conducted. The animals were allocated to the control group (n = 15) and the microalgae group (n = 16). Shotgun lipidomics was applied. This study enabled us to identify and quantify 336 lipid species from 15 different lipid classes in pig skeletal muscle tissues. The distribution of the lipid classes was significantly altered by microalgae supplementation, and ether lipids of phosphatidylcholine (PC), phosphatidylethanolamine (PE), and phosphatidic acid (PA) were significantly decreased. The total concentration of triacylglycerides (TAGs) was not affected. TAGs with high degree of unsaturation (TAG 56:7, TAG 56:6, TAG 54:6) were increased in the microalgae group, and major abundant species like TAG 52:2 and TAG 52:1 were not affected by the diet. Our results confirmed that dietary DHA and EPA are incorporated into storage and membrane lipids of pig muscles, which further led to systemic changes in the lipidome composition.

Comparative Transcriptomic Analysis Reveals Diverse Expression Pattern Underlying Fatty Acid Composition among Different Beef Cuts

Beef is an important dietary source of quality animal proteins and amino acids in human nutrition. The fatty acid composition is one of the indispensable indicators affecting nutritional value of beef. However, a comprehensive understanding of the expression changes underlying fatty acid composition in representative beef cuts is needed in cattle. This study aimed to characterize the dynamics of fatty acid composition using comparative transcriptomic analysis in five different type of beef cuts. We identified 7545 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) among 10 pair-wise comparisons. Co-expression gene network analysis identified two modules, which were significantly correlated with 2 and 20 fatty acid composition, respectively. We also identified 38 candidate genes, and functional enrichment showed that these genes were involved in fatty acid biosynthetic process and degradation, PPAR, and AMPK signaling pathway. Moreover, we observed a cluster of DEGs (e.g., SCD, LPL, FABP3, and PPARD) which were involved in the regulation of lipid metabolism and adipocyte differentiation. Our results provide some valuable insights into understanding the transcriptome regulation of candidate genes on fatty acid composition of beef cuts, and our findings may facilitate the designs of genetic selection program for beneficial fatty acid composition in beef cattle.

Exploring the Lipids Involved in the Formation of Characteristic Lactones in Japanese Black Cattle

The meat from Japanese Black cattle (Japanese Wagyu) is finely marbled and exhibits a rich and sweet aroma known as Wagyu beef aroma. To clarify the key metabolites involved in the aroma, we analyzed the correlation between lactone and lipid composition in Japanese Black cattle. Using gas chromatography-olfactometry, we identified 39 characteristic odorants of the intermuscular fat. Seven characteristic lactones considered to be involved in Wagyu beef aroma were quantified and compared in the marbled area and intermuscular fat using a stable isotope dilution assay. Among them, γ-hexalactone was the only lactone whose level was significantly higher in the marbled area. To explore the lipid species involved in lactone formation, we analyzed samples with different aroma characteristics. Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry revealed eight lipid classes and showed significant differences in triacylglycerides (TAGs). To determine the molecular species of TAGs, we performed high-performance liquid chromatography analysis and identified 14 TAG species. However, these analyses showed that seven lactones had a low correlation with the TAGs. However, γ-hexalactone showed a positive correlation with linoleic acid. This study suggests that lipid composition affects the characteristic lactone profile involved in the Wagyu beef aroma.

Dry-aged beef manufactured in Japan: Microbiota identification and their effects on product characteristics

We aimed to determine the mold, yeast, and bacterial distributions in dry-aged beef (DAB) manufactured in Hokkaido, Japan, and to study their effects on meat quality compared to wet-aged beef (WAB). Two rump blocks from Holstein steer were dry- and wet-aged for 35 days at 2.9 °C and 90% RH. The psychrophilic molds Mucor flavus and Helicostylum pulchrum and other fungi (Penicillium sp. and Debaryomyces sp.) appeared on the crust of DAB, while lactic acid bacteria and coliforms were suppressed in the inner part of the meat. The composition of C16:0, C18:0, and C18:1 fatty acids did not differ between DAB and WAB, while more C17:0 fatty acids were detected in DAB. Dry aging suppressed acids and increased the production of various aroma compounds with mushroom-like, nutty, and other pleasant flavors. The meat quality and free amino acid (FAA) contents of DAB and WAB did not differ significantly. In this study, we identified major molds on DAB, which might contribute to an increase in aroma. Keywords: dry-aged beef; Mucor flavus; Helicostylum pulchrum; psychrophilic mold; meat quality; volatile aroma compounds.

Fatty Acid Profile of Muscles from Crossbred Angus-Simmental, Wagyu-Simmental, and Chinese Simmental Cattles

This study assessed breed differences in fatty acid composition and meat quality of Longissimus thoracis et lumborum (LTL) and semitendinosus (SE) of Angus× Chinese Simmental (AS), Wagyu×Chinese Simmental (WS), and Chinese Simmental (CS). CS (n=9), AS (n=9) and WS (n=9) were randomly selected from a herd of 80 bulls which were fed and managed under similar conditions. Fatty acid profile and meat quality parameters were analyzed in duplicate. Significant breed difference was observed in fatty acid and meat quality profiles. AS exhibited significantly (p<0.05) lower C16:0 and higher C18:1n9c compared with CS. AS breed also had a tendency (p<0.10) to lower total saturated fatty acid (SFA), improve C18:3n3 and total unsaturated fatty acid (UFA) compared with CS. Crossbreed of AS and WS had significantly (p<0.05) improved the lightness, redness, and yellowness of muscles, and lowered cooking loss, pressing loss, and shear force compared with CS. These results indicated that fatty acid composition and meat quality generally differed among breeds, although the differences were not always similar in different tissues. Fatty acid composition, meat color, water holding capacity, and tenderness favored AS over CS. Thus, Angus cattle might be used to improve fatty acid and meat quality profiles of CS, and AS might contain better nutritive value, organoleptic properties, and flavor, and could be potentially developed as an ideal commercial crossbreed.

Characterizing membrane phospholipid hydrolysis of pork loins throughout three aging periods

Three chops from 20 pork carcasses were aged for 1, 8, and 21 days. Electrospray ionization-tandem mass spectrometry was used to comprehensively analyze profiles of phospholipids from each sample (n = 60). Total phospholipid quantity decreased 4-folds (P < .01) from 1 to 21 days of aging in pork loins. Phosphatidylinositol (PI) and phosphatidylserine (PS) increased by 30% and 73%, respectively, from 1 to 21 days of aging in pork loins (P < .01). This increase was mainly due to relative percentage increase from PI 38:4 (18:0-20:4) and PS 36:2 (18:0-18:2; P < .01). The results also showed that the relative percentage of lysophosphatidylcholine increased by 35% after short term aging (8d), and phosphatidic acid increased by 10-folds after extended aging (21d; P < .01). These results documented that phospholipids undergo enzymatic hydrolysis during aging, but also indicated that lipid species containing 18:2 or 20:4 within PI and PS were slightly more resistant to enzymatic hydrolysis compared with the other phospholipids.

Bioactivity and health effects of ruminant meat lipids. Invited Review

Ruminant meat (RM) is an excellent source of high-quality protein, B vitamins and trace minerals and plays an important role in global food and nutrition security. However, nutritional guidelines commonly recommend reduced intake of RM mainly because of its high saturated fatty acid (SFA) content, and more recently because of its perceived negative environmental impacts. RM is, however, rich in heart healthy cis-monounsaturated fatty acids and can be an important source of long-chain omega-3 (n-3) fatty acids in populations with low fish consumption. In addition, RM is a source of bioactive phospholipids, as well as rumen-derived bioactive fatty acids including branched-chain, vaccenic and rumenic acids, which have been associated with several health benefits. However, the role of bioactive RM lipids in maintaining and improving consumers' health have been generally ignored in nutritional guidelines. The present review examines RM lipids in relation to human health, and evaluates the effectiveness of different feeding strategies and possibilities for future profile and content improvement.

Effect of feeding forage or concentrate starter diets in early life on life-time growth, carcass traits and meat quality of Wagyu × Friesian cattle

Context Nutrition in early life can affect the long-term performance of livestock. Aims The present study evaluated the effects of rearing Wagyu × Holstein Friesian heifer calves either on a concentrate pelleted starter (CS; 90% DM, 19.3% crude protein (CP), and 13.8 MJ metabolisable energy (ME) per kilogram DM) or a forage starter (FS, ensiled alfalfa, Medicago sativa; 45% DM, 18.5% CP and 9.7 MJ metabolisable energy per kilogram DM) on lifetime growth, blood metabolites, carcass traits and meat quality. Methods Calves (n = 60) were allocated either to CS or FS diets. All calves received their solid feeds ad libitum from Week 1 and were fed milk in group pens (n = 10/pen) at 4 L/calf.day until Week 7, then 2 L/calf.day for 2 weeks. Calves were transferred to pasture 1 week after milk removal, with starter feeds removed by Week 15. All heifers were then managed as one group on a pasture-based diet until slaughter at 26–30 months of age (average of 483 kg liveweight). Key results Calves offered the CS diet were 14 kg heavier than were calves on the FS diet at 15 weeks (P &lt; 0.001). However, liveweight was similar between the groups by the time of slaughter (P &gt; 0.1). All blood parameters studied were similar (P &gt; 0.05) between the treatments at 12 months and at slaughter. Depth of eye muscle and subcutaneous fat, measured using ultrasonography before slaughter, carcass weight and meat pH, marbling, shear force, moisture loss during cooking, total fat and fat and meat colour were also similar between the treatments (P &gt; 0.05). Some potential was found for using blood markers to predict carcass traits and meat quality. Conclusions Solid feed type during rearing had little effect on liveweight or meat characteristics from 12 months of age to slaughter of Wagyu × Friesian heifers. Implications Calves can be reared on FS diets with similar long-term production performance as on CS diets.

Genome-Wide Association Study of Meat Quality Traits in Hanwoo Beef Cattle Using Imputed Whole-Genome Sequence Data

The discovery of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) and the subsequent genotyping of large numbers of animals have enabled large-scale analyses to begin to understand the biological processes that underpin variation in animal populations. In beef cattle, genome-wide association studies using genotype arrays have revealed many quantitative trait loci (QTL) for various production traits such as growth, efficiency and meat quality. Most studies regarding meat quality have focused on marbling, which is a key trait associated with meat eating quality. However, other important traits like meat color, texture and fat color have not commonly been studied. Developments in genome sequencing technologies provide new opportunities to identify regions associated with these traits more precisely. The objective of this study was to estimate variance components and identify significant variants underpinning variation in meat quality traits using imputed whole genome sequence data. Phenotypic and genomic data from 2,110 Hanwoo cattle were used. The estimated heritabilities for the studied traits were 0.01, 0.16, 0.31, and 0.49 for fat color, meat color, meat texture and marbling score, respectively. Marbling score and meat texture were highly correlated. The genome-wide association study revealed 107 significant SNPs located on 14 selected chromosomes (one QTL region per selected chromosome). Four QTL regions were identified on BTA2, 12, 16, and 24 for marbling score and two QTL regions were found for meat texture trait on BTA12 and 29. Similarly, three QTL regions were identified for meat color on BTA2, 14 and 24 and five QTL regions for fat color on BTA7, 10, 12, 16, and 21. Candidate genes were identified for all traits, and their potential influence on the given trait was discussed. The significant SNP will be an important inclusion into commercial genotyping arrays to select new breeding animals more accurately.

Prepartum fatty acid supplementation in sheep. IV. Effect of calcium salts with eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid in the maternal and finishing diet on lamb liver and adipose tissue during the lamb finishing period1

The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) supplementation to ewes during late gestation on finishing lamb liver and adipose tissue fatty acid (FA) profile and gene expression. Lambs born from ewes supplemented with Ca salts of EPA + DHA, or palm FA distillate (PFAD) high in palmitic and oleic acid at 0.39% DM during the last 50 d of gestation were used. Lambs were weaned at 61 d of age and adapted to a high concentrate diet for 1.5 mo. After adaptation, 74 lambs (28 pens) were blocked by sex and BW and used in a 2 × 2 factorial arrangement of treatments using the factors of dam supplementation (DS) and lamb supplementation (LS) of Ca salts of EPA + DHA or PFAD at 1.48% DM. Lambs were slaughtered after 42 d and liver and adipose tissue collected for FA and gene expression analysis. Liver concentrations of EPA and DHA were greater (P < 0.01) with LS of EPA + DHA vs. PFAD during the finishing period. In adipose tissue, a lamb × dam interaction was observed for EPA (P = 0.02) and DHA (P = 0.04); LS of EPA + DHA increased EPA and DHA, but the increase was greatest in lambs born from ewes supplemented with PFAD. No lamb × dam treatment interactions were observed for gene expression in liver tissue (P > 0.10). Hepatic mRNA abundance of hormone-sensitive lipase (HSL; P = 0.01) was greater in lambs born from EPA + DHA ewes vs. lambs from PFAD ewes. mRNA expression of stearoyl-CoA desaturase (P < 0.01), fatty acid synthase (P = 0.01), Δ5-desaturase (P < 0.01), and Δ6-desaturase (P < 0.01) were decreased in liver of EPA + DHA lambs. A significant lamb × dam diet interaction was observed for elongation of very long chain fatty acid 2 in adipose tissue (P = 0.01); lambs supplemented with the same FA as their dams had lower expression. Expression of HSL tended (P = 0.08) to be decreased in adipose of EPA + DHA lambs born from EPA + DHA ewes. The changes in mRNA expression suggest that lipogenesis decreased, and lipolysis increased in lamb liver with EPA + DHA vs. PFAD supplementation during the finishing period. In adipose tissue, changes suggest that lipogenesis decreased in lambs born from EPA + DHA supplemented dams and supplemented with EPA + DHA during the finishing period. In addition, these results suggest an interaction between supplementation of FA to dams during late gestation on lamb response of adipose tissue, but not liver, to FA supplementation during the finishing period.

Rapid detection and specific identification of offals within minced beef samples utilising ambient mass spectrometry

The morphological transformation of beef tissues after various processing treatments facilitates the addition of cheap offal products. Undetectable to the naked eye, analytical techniques are required to identify such scenarios within minced and processed products. DNA methodologies are ill-equipped to detect adulteration of offal cuts from the same species and vibrational spectroscopic studies, although rapid and non-destructive, have proved inconclusive as to whether the specific adulterant can be identified. For the first time we present a mass spectrometric approach employing an ambient ionisation process to eliminate sample preparation and provide near-instantaneous results. Rapid evaporative ionisation mass spectrometry (REIMS) was used to assess its capabilities of detecting minced beef adulteration with beef brain, heart, kidney, large intestine and liver tissues and chemometric analysis enabled unique or significant markers to be identified. The adulteration levels detected with the REIMS technology when analysing raw adulterated beef burgers were; brain (5%); heart (1–10%); kidney (1–5%); large intestine (1–10%) and liver (5–10%). For boiled adulterated samples; brain (5–10%); heart (1–10%); kidney (1–5%); large intestine (1–10%) and liver (5–10%). REIMS allows rapid and specific identification of offal cuts within adulterated beef burgers and could provide a paradigm shift across many authenticity applications.