Antibiotic dose optimization in critically ill patients

Pharmacokinetics of Antibacterial Agents in the Elderly: The Body of Evidence

Infections are important factors contributing to the morbidity and mortality among elderly patients. High rates of consumption of antimicrobial agents by the elderly may result in increased risk of toxic reactions, deteriorating functions of various organs and systems and leading to the prolongation of hospital stay, admission to the intensive care unit, disability, and lethal outcome. Both safety and efficacy of antibiotics are determined by the values of their plasma concentrations, widely affected by physiologic and pathologic age-related changes specific for the elderly population. Drug absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion are altered in different extents depending on functional and morphological changes in the cardiovascular system, gastrointestinal tract, liver, and kidneys. Water and fat content, skeletal muscle mass, nutritional status, use of concomitant drugs are other determinants of pharmacokinetics changes observed in the elderly. The choice of a proper dosing regimen is essential to provide effective and safe antibiotic therapy in terms of attainment of certain pharmacodynamic targets. The objective of this review is to perform a structure of evidence on the age-related changes contributing to the alteration of pharmacokinetic parameters in the elderly.

Antimicrobial Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics in Critical Care: Adjusting the Dose in Extracorporeal Circulation and to Prevent the Genesis of Multiresistant Bacteria

Critically ill patients suffering from severe infections are prone to pathophysiological pharmacokinetic changes that are frequently associated with inadequate antibiotic serum concentrations. Minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) of the causative pathogens tend to be higher in intensive care units. Both pharmacokinetic changes and high antibiotic resistance likely jeopardize the efficacy of treatment. The use of extracorporeal circulation devices to support hemodynamic, respiratory, or renal failure enables pharmacokinetic changes and makes it even more difficult to achieve an adequate antibiotic dose. Besides a clinical response, antibiotic pharmacokinetic optimization is important to reduce the selection of strains resistant to common antibiotics. In this review, we summarize the present knowledge regarding pharmacokinetic changes in critically ill patients and we discuss the effects of extra-corporeal devices on antibiotic treatment together with potential solutions.

Antimicrobial Exposure in Critically Ill Patients with Sepsis-Associated Multi-Organ Dysfunction Requiring Extracorporeal Organ Support: A Narrative Review

Sepsis is a leading cause of disability and mortality worldwide. The pathophysiology of sepsis relies on the maladaptive host response to pathogens that fosters unbalanced organ crosstalk and induces multi-organ dysfunction, whose severity was directly associated with mortality. In septic patients, etiologic interventions aiming to reduce the pathogen load via appropriate antimicrobial therapy and the effective control of the source infection were demonstrated to improve clinical outcomes. Nonetheless, extracorporeal organ support represents a complementary intervention that may play a role in mitigating life-threatening complications caused by sepsis-associated multi-organ dysfunction. In this setting, an increasing amount of research raised concerns about the risk of suboptimal antimicrobial exposure in critically ill patients with sepsis, which may be worsened by the concomitant delivery of extracorporeal organ support. Accordingly, several strategies have been implemented to overcome this issue. In this narrative review, we discussed the pharmacokinetic features of antimicrobials and mechanisms that may favor drug removal during renal replacement therapy, coupled plasma filtration and absorption, therapeutic plasma exchange, hemoperfusion, extracorporeal CO₂ removal and extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. We also provided an overview of evidence-based strategies that may help the physician to safely prescribe effective antimicrobial doses in critically ill patients with sepsis-associated multi-organ dysfunction who receive extracorporeal organ support.

β-Lactam Dosing in Critical Patients: A Narrative Review of Optimal Efficacy and the Prevention of Resistance and Toxicity

Antimicrobial prescription in critically ill patients represents a complex challenge due to the difficult balance between infection treatment and toxicity prevention. Underexposure to antibiotics and therapeutic failure or, conversely, drug overexposure and toxicity may both contribute to a worse prognosis. Moreover, changes in organ perfusion and dysfunction often lead to unpredictable pharmacokinetics. In critically ill patients, interindividual and intraindividual real-time β-lactam antibiotic dose adjustments according to the patient's condition are critical. The continuous infusion of β-lactams and the therapeutic monitoring of their concentration have both been proposed to improve their efficacy, but strong data to support their use are still lacking. The knowledge of the pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic targets is poor and is mostly based on observational data. In patients with renal or hepatic failure, selecting the right dose is even more tricky due to changes in drug clearance, distribution, and the use of extracorporeal circuits. Intermittent usage may further increase the dosing conundrum. Recent data have emerged linking overexposure to β-lactams to central nervous system toxicity, mitochondrial recovery delay, and microbiome changes. In addition, it is well recognized that β-lactam exposure facilitates resistance selection and that correct dosing can help to overcome it. In this review, we discuss recent data regarding real-time β-lactam antibiotic dose adjustment, options in special populations, and the impacts on mitochondria and the microbiome.

Optimizing Meropenem in Highly Resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae Environments: Population Pharmacokinetics and Dosing Simulations in Critically Ill Patients

Critically ill patients are characterized by substantial pathophysiological changes that alter the pharmacokinetics (PK) of hydrophilic antibiotics, including carbapenems. Meropenem is a key antibiotic for multidrug-resistant Gram-negative bacilli, and such pathophysiological alterations can worsen treatment outcomes. This study aimed to determine the population PK of meropenem and to propose optimized dosing regimens for the treatment of multidrug-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae in critically ill patients. Two plasma samples were collected from eligible patients over a dosing interval. Nonparametric population PK modeling was performed using Pmetrics. Monte Carlo simulations were applied to different dosing regimens to determine the probability of target attainment and the cumulative fraction of response, taking into account the local MIC distribution for K. pneumoniae. The targets of 40% and 100% for the fraction of time that free drug concentrations remained above the MIC (ƒT>MIC) were tested, as suggested for critically ill patients. A one-compartment PK model using data from 27 patients showed high interindividual variability. Significant PK covariates were the 8-h creatinine clearance for meropenem and the presence of an indwelling catheter for pleural, abdominal, or cerebrospinal fluid drainage for the meropenem volume of distribution. The target 100% ƒT>MIC for K. pneumoniae, with a MIC of ≤2 mg/liter, could be attained by the use of a continuous infusion of 2.0 g/day. Meropenem therapy in critically ill patients could be optimized for K. pneumoniae isolates with an MIC of ≤2 mg/liter by using a continuous infusion in settings with more than 50% isolates have a MIC of ≥32mg/L.

Dose optimization of β-lactams antibiotics in pediatrics and adults: A systematic review

Background: β-lactams remain the cornerstone of the empirical therapy to treat various bacterial infections. This systematic review aimed to analyze the data describing the dosing regimen of β-lactams.

Methods: Systematic scientific and grey literature was performed in accordance with Preferred Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) guidelines. The studies were retrieved and screened on the basis of pre-defined exclusion and inclusion criteria. The cohort studies, randomized controlled trials (RCT) and case reports that reported the dosing schedule of β-lactams are included in this study.

Results: A total of 52 studies met the inclusion criteria, of which 40 were cohort studies, 2 were case reports and 10 were RCTs. The majority of the studies (34/52) studied the pharmacokinetic (PK) parameters of a drug. A total of 20 studies proposed dosing schedule in pediatrics while 32 studies proposed dosing regimen among adults. Piperacillin (12/52) and Meropenem (11/52) were the most commonly used β-lactams used in hospitalized patients. As per available evidence, continuous infusion is considered as the most appropriate mode of administration to optimize the safety and efficacy of the treatment and improve the clinical outcomes.

Conclusion: Appropriate antibiotic therapy is challenging due to pathophysiological changes among different age groups. The optimization of pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic parameters is useful to support alternative dosing regimens such as an increase in dosing interval, continuous infusion, and increased bolus doses.

The correlation between non-O blood group type and recurrent catheter-associated urinary tract infections in critically ill patients: A retrospective study

Objective

To investigate the correlation between the ABO blood group and the risk of recurrent catheter-associated urinary tract infections (CA-UTI) and multi-drug resistant (MDR) organism reinfection in the critically ill.

Methods

This retrospective cohort study enrolled adult patients admitted to the intensive care unit (ICU) with confirmed CA-UTI to investigate the correlation between ABO type and the susceptibility to recurrent, reinfection and MDR reinfection. Patients were classified into two groups based on ABO type (O blood group versus non-O blood group).

Results

A total of 81 patients were included in the study: 37 in the O blood group and 44 in the non-O blood group. Patients in the O blood group were associated with significantly lower odds of recurrent CA-UTI (adjusted odds ratio 0.28; 95% confidence interval 0.08, 0.95), a shorter ICU length of stay (LOS) (estimate [SE] –0.24 [0.05]), hospital LOS (estimate [SE] –0.15 [0.03]) and mechanical ventilation duration (estimate [SE] –0.41 [0.07]) compared with the non-O blood group type.

Conclusion

Non-O blood group type might be a risk factor for recurrent CA-UTI and infection with MDR organism.

Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic analysis of cefoperazone/sulbactam for the treatment of pediatric sepsis by Monte Carlo simulation

Pediatric sepsis syndrome is one of the most common reasons for pediatric intensive care unit hospitalization (PICU). Cefoperazone/sulbactam is a time-dependent beta-lactamase inhibitor combination which has been widely used in the treatment of sepsis. But the pharmacokinetic (PK) and pharmacodynamic (PD) data of cefoperazone/sulbactam are unknown in children with sepsis. The present work aimed to determine whether the usual dosing regimens of cefoperazone/sulbactam (1 hour infusion, 50 mg kg^-1, every 12 hours) were suitable for these patients in PICU. A total of fourteen patients were enrolled and the PK parameters were estimated by non-compartmental analysis using WinNonlin software. The t_1/2 and AUC_0-12 of cefoperazone and sulbactam were 3.60 and 1.77 h, and 900.97 and 67.68 h μg mL^-1, respectively. The Vd and CL of cefoperazone and sulbactam were 1.65 L and 5.16 L, and 17.41 mL min^-1 and 122.62 mL min^-1, respectively. The probability of target attainments (PTAs) of cefoperazone at different minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) based on the percentage time that concentrations exceed the minimum inhibitory concentration (% T > MIC) value were performed by Monte Carlo simulation and PTA was >90% at MICs ≤16 μg mL^-1. The PK/PD profile of dosing regimens tested will assist in selecting the appropriate cefoperazone/sulbactam regimens for these patients. At a target of 80% T > MIC, the usual dosing regimens can provide good coverage for pathogens with MICs of ≤32 μg mL^-1. The ratio between cefoperazone and sulbactam at 1 : 1 may be more suitable in pediatric sepsis. Individual dose and therapeutic drug monitoring in clinical practice will help achieve the best therapeutic effect while minimizing toxicity.

Are Antibiotics Appropriately Dosed in Critically Ill Patients with Augmented Renal Clearance? A Narrative Review

AIMS

Augmented renal clearance (ARC), which is commonly defined as increased renal clearance above 130 ml/min/1.73 m², is a common phenomenon among critically ill patients. The increased elimination rate of drugs through the kidneys in patients with ARC can increase the risk of treatment failure due to the exposure to subtherapeutic serum concentrations of medications and affect the optimal management of infections, length of hospital stay, and outcomes. The main goal of this review article is to summarize the recommendations for appropriate dosing of antibiotics in patients with ARC.

METHODS

This article is a narrative review of the articles that evaluated different dosing regimens of antibiotics in patients with ARC. The keywords "Augmented Renal Clearance," "Critically ill patients," "Drug dosing," "Serum concentration," "Beta-lactams," "Meropenem," "Imipenem," "Glycopeptide," "Vancomycin," "Teicoplanin," "Linezolid," "Colistin," "Aminoglycosides," "Amikacin," "Gentamycin," "Fluoroquinolones," "Ciprofloxacin," and "Levofloxacin" were searched in Scopus, Medline, PubMed, and Google Scholar databases, and pediatric, nonhuman, and non-English studies were excluded.

RESULTS

PK properties of antibiotics including lipophilicity or hydrophilicity, protein binding, the volume of distribution, and elimination rate that affect drug concentration should be considered along with PD parameters for drug dosing in critically ill patients with ARC.

CONCLUSION

This review recommends a dosing protocol for some antibiotics to help the appropriate dosing of antibiotics in ARC and decrease the risk of subtherapeutic exposure that may be observed while receiving conventional dosing regimens in critically ill patients with ARC.

Antibiotics in critically ill children-a narrative review on different aspects of a rational approach

Especially critically ill children are exposed to antibiotic overtreatment, mainly caused by the fear of missing out a severe bacterial infection. Potential adverse effects and selection of multi-drug resistant bacteria play minor roles in decision making. This narrative review first describes harm from antibiotics and second focuses on different aspects that could help to reduce antibiotic overtreatment without harming the patient: harm from antibiotic treatment, diagnostic approaches, role of biomarkers, timing of antibiotic therapy, empiric therapy, targeted therapy, and therapeutic drug monitoring. Wherever possible, we linked the described evidence to the current Surviving Sepsis Campaign guidelines. Antibiotic stewardship programs should help guiding antibiotic therapy for critically ill children. IMPACT: Critically ill children can be harmed by inadequate or overuse of antibiotics. Hemodynamically unstable children with a suspicion of infection should be immediately treated with broad-spectrum antibiotics. In contrast, in hemodynamically stable children with sepsis and organ dysfunction, a time frame of 3 h for proper diagnostics may be adequate before starting antibiotics if necessary. Less and more targeted antibiotic treatment can be achieved via antibiotic stewardship programs.

Antibiotics and the Nervous System-Which Face of Antibiotic Therapy Is Real, Dr. Jekyll (Neurotoxicity) or Mr. Hyde (Neuroprotection)?

Antibiotics as antibacterial drugs have saved many lives, but have also become a victim of their own success. Their widespread abuse reduces their anti-infective effectiveness and causes the development of bacterial resistance. Moreover, irrational antibiotic therapy contributes to gastrointestinal dysbiosis, that increases the risk of the development of many diseases, including neurological and psychiatric. One of the potential options for restoring homeostasis is the use of oral antibiotics that are poorly absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract (e.g., rifaximin alfa). Thus, antibiotic therapy may exert neurological or psychiatric adverse drug reactions which are often considered to be overlooked and undervalued issues. Drug-induced neurotoxicity is mostly observed after beta-lactams and quinolones. Penicillin may produce a wide range of neurological dysfunctions, including encephalopathy, behavioral changes, myoclonus or seizures. Their pathomechanism results from the disturbances of gamma-aminobutyric acid-GABA transmission (due to the molecular similarities between the structure of the β-lactam ring and GABA molecule) and impairment of the functioning of benzodiazepine receptors (BZD). However, on the other hand, antibiotics have also been studied for their neuroprotective properties in the treatment of neurodegenerative and neuroinflammatory processes (e.g., Alzheimer's or Parkinson's diseases). Antibiotics may, therefore, become promising elements of multi-targeted therapy for these entities.

Correlation of antimicrobial fraction unbound and sieving coefficient in critically ill patients on continuous renal replacement therapy: a systematic review

Background

Fraction unbound has been used as a surrogate for antimicrobial sieving coefficient (SC) to predict extracorporeal clearance in critically ill patients on continuous renal replacement therapy (CRRT), but this is based largely on expert opinion.

Objectives

To examine relationships between package insert-derived fraction unbound (Fu-P), study-specific fraction unbound (Fu-S), and SC in critically ill patients receiving CRRT.

Methods

English-language studies containing patient-specific in vivo pharmacokinetic parameters for antimicrobials in critically ill patients requiring CRRT were included. The primary outcome included correlations between Fu-S, Fu-P, and SC. Secondary outcomes included correlations across protein binding quartiles, serum albumin, and predicted in-hospital mortality, and identification of predictors for SC through multivariable analysis.

Results

Eighty-nine studies including 32 antimicrobials were included for analysis. SC was moderately correlated to Fu-S (R2 = 0.55, P < 0.001) and Fu-P (R2 = 0.41, P < 0.001). SC was best correlated to Fu-S in first (<69%) and fourth (>92%) quartiles of fraction unbound and above median albumin concentrations of 24.5 g/L (R2 = 0.71, P = 0.07). Conversely, correlation was weaker in patients with mortality estimates greater than the median of 55% (R2 = 0.06, P = 0.84). SC and Fu-P were also best correlated in the first quartile of antimicrobial fraction unbound (R2 = 0.66, P < 0.001). Increasing Fu-P, flow rate, membrane surface area, and serum albumin, and decreasing physiologic charge significantly predicted increasing SC.

Conclusions

Fu-S and Fu-P were both reasonably correlated to SC. Caution should be taken when using Fu-S to calculate extracorporeal clearance in antimicrobials with 69%–92% fraction unbound or with >55% estimated in-hospital patient mortality. Fu-P may serve as a rudimentary surrogate for SC when Fu-S is unavailable.

Optimizing Antimicrobial Drug Dosing in Critically Ill Patients

A fundamental step in the successful management of sepsis and septic shock is early empiric antimicrobial therapy. However, for this to be effective, several decisions must be addressed simultaneously: (1) antimicrobial choices should be adequate, covering the most probable pathogens; (2) they should be administered in the appropriate dose, (3) by the correct route, and (4) using the correct mode of administration to achieve successful concentration at the infection site. In critically ill patients, antimicrobial dosing is a common challenge and a frequent source of errors, since these patients present deranged pharmacokinetics, namely increased volume of distribution and altered drug clearance, which either increased or decreased. Moreover, the clinical condition of these patients changes markedly over time, either improving or deteriorating. The consequent impact on drug pharmacokinetics further complicates the selection of correct drug schedules and dosing during the course of therapy. In recent years, the knowledge of pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics, drug dosing, therapeutic drug monitoring, and antimicrobial resistance in the critically ill patients has greatly improved, fostering strategies to optimize therapeutic efficacy and to reduce toxicity and adverse events. Nonetheless, delivering adequate and appropriate antimicrobial therapy is still a challenge, since pathogen resistance continues to rise, and new therapeutic agents remain scarce. We aim to review the available literature to assess the challenges, impact, and tools to optimize individualization of antimicrobial dosing to maximize exposure and effectiveness in critically ill patients.

The Role of PK/PD Analysis in the Development and Evaluation of Antimicrobials

Pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic (PK/PD) analysis has proved to be very useful to establish rational dosage regimens of antimicrobial agents in human and veterinary medicine. Actually, PK/PD studies are included in the European Medicines Agency (EMA) guidelines for the evaluation of medicinal products. The PK/PD approach implies the use of in vitro, ex vivo, and in vivo models, as well as mathematical models to describe the relationship between the kinetics and the dynamic to determine the optimal dosing regimens of antimicrobials, but also to establish susceptibility breakpoints, and prevention of resistance. The final goal is to optimize therapy in order to maximize efficacy and minimize side effects and emergence of resistance. In this review, we revise the PK/PD principles and the models to investigate the relationship between the PK and the PD of antibiotics. Additionally, we highlight the outstanding role of the PK/PD analysis at different levels, from the development and evaluation of new antibiotics to the optimization of the dosage regimens of currently available drugs, both for human and animal use.

Right Dose, Right Now: Development of AutoKinetics for Real Time Model Informed Precision Antibiotic Dosing Decision Support at the Bedside of Critically Ill Patients

Introduction

Antibiotic dosing in critically ill patients is challenging because their pharmacokinetics (PK) are altered and may change rapidly with disease progression. Standard dosing frequently leads to inadequate PK exposure. Therapeutic drug monitoring (TDM) offers a potential solution but requires sampling and PK knowledge, which delays decision support. It is our philosophy that antibiotic dosing support should be directly available at the bedside through deep integration into the electronic health record (EHR) system. Therefore we developed AutoKinetics, a clinical decision support system (CDSS) for real time, model informed precision antibiotic dosing.

Objective

To provide a detailed description of the design, development, validation, testing, and implementation of AutoKinetics.

Methods

We created a development framework and used workflow analysis to facilitate integration into popular EHR systems. We used a development cycle to iteratively adjust and expand AutoKinetics functionalities. Furthermore, we performed a literature review to select and integrate pharmacokinetic models for five frequently prescribed antibiotics for sepsis. Finally, we tackled regulatory challenges, in particular those related to the Medical Device Regulation under the European regulatory framework.

Results

We developed a SQL-based relational database as the backend of AutoKinetics. We developed a data loader to retrieve data in real time. We designed a clinical dosing algorithm to find a dose regimen to maintain antibiotic pharmacokinetic exposure within clinically relevant safety constraints. If needed, a loading dose is calculated to minimize the time until steady state is achieved. Finally, adaptive dosing using Bayesian estimation is applied if plasma levels are available. We implemented support for five extensively used antibiotics following model development, calibration, and validation. We integrated AutoKinetics into two popular EHRs (Metavision, Epic) and developed a user interface that provides textual and visual feedback to the physician.

Conclusion

We successfully developed a CDSS for real time model informed precision antibiotic dosing at the bedside of the critically ill. This holds great promise for improving sepsis outcome. Therefore, we recently started the Right Dose Right Now multi-center randomized control trial to validate this concept in 420 patients with severe sepsis and septic shock.

Surviving sepsis campaign international guidelines for the management of septic shock and sepsis-associated organ dysfunction in children

OBJECTIVES

To develop evidence-based recommendations for clinicians caring for children (including infants, school-aged children, and adolescents) with septic shock and other sepsis-associated organ dysfunction.

DESIGN

A panel of 49 international experts, representing 12 international organizations, as well as three methodologists and three public members was convened. Panel members assembled at key international meetings (for those panel members attending the conference), and a stand-alone meeting was held for all panel members in November 2018. A formal conflict-of-interest policy was developed at the onset of the process and enforced throughout. Teleconferences and electronic-based discussion among the chairs, co-chairs, methodologists, and group heads, as well as within subgroups, served as an integral part of the guideline development process.

METHODS

The panel consisted of six subgroups: recognition and management of infection, hemodynamics and resuscitation, ventilation, endocrine and metabolic therapies, adjunctive therapies, and research priorities. We conducted a systematic review for each Population, Intervention, Control, and Outcomes question to identify the best available evidence, statistically summarized the evidence, and then assessed the quality of evidence using the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development, and Evaluation approach. We used the evidence-to-decision framework to formulate recommendations as strong or weak, or as a best practice statement. In addition, "in our practice" statements were included when evidence was inconclusive to issue a recommendation, but the panel felt that some guidance based on practice patterns may be appropriate.

RESULTS

The panel provided 77 statements on the management and resuscitation of children with septic shock and other sepsis-associated organ dysfunction. Overall, six were strong recommendations, 49 were weak recommendations, and nine were best-practice statements. For 13 questions, no recommendations could be made; but, for 10 of these, "in our practice" statements were provided. In addition, 52 research priorities were identified.

CONCLUSIONS

A large cohort of international experts was able to achieve consensus regarding many recommendations for the best care of children with sepsis, acknowledging that most aspects of care had relatively low quality of evidence resulting in the frequent issuance of weak recommendations. Despite this challenge, these recommendations regarding the management of children with septic shock and other sepsis-associated organ dysfunction provide a foundation for consistent care to improve outcomes and inform future research.

Surviving Sepsis Campaign International Guidelines for the Management of Septic Shock and Sepsis-Associated Organ Dysfunction in Children

OBJECTIVES

To develop evidence-based recommendations for clinicians caring for children (including infants, school-aged children, and adolescents) with septic shock and other sepsis-associated organ dysfunction.

DESIGN

A panel of 49 international experts, representing 12 international organizations, as well as three methodologists and three public members was convened. Panel members assembled at key international meetings (for those panel members attending the conference), and a stand-alone meeting was held for all panel members in November 2018. A formal conflict-of-interest policy was developed at the onset of the process and enforced throughout. Teleconferences and electronic-based discussion among the chairs, co-chairs, methodologists, and group heads, as well as within subgroups, served as an integral part of the guideline development process.

METHODS

The panel consisted of six subgroups: recognition and management of infection, hemodynamics and resuscitation, ventilation, endocrine and metabolic therapies, adjunctive therapies, and research priorities. We conducted a systematic review for each Population, Intervention, Control, and Outcomes question to identify the best available evidence, statistically summarized the evidence, and then assessed the quality of evidence using the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development, and Evaluation approach. We used the evidence-to-decision framework to formulate recommendations as strong or weak, or as a best practice statement. In addition, "in our practice" statements were included when evidence was inconclusive to issue a recommendation, but the panel felt that some guidance based on practice patterns may be appropriate.

RESULTS

The panel provided 77 statements on the management and resuscitation of children with septic shock and other sepsis-associated organ dysfunction. Overall, six were strong recommendations, 52 were weak recommendations, and nine were best-practice statements. For 13 questions, no recommendations could be made; but, for 10 of these, "in our practice" statements were provided. In addition, 49 research priorities were identified.

CONCLUSIONS

A large cohort of international experts was able to achieve consensus regarding many recommendations for the best care of children with sepsis, acknowledging that most aspects of care had relatively low quality of evidence resulting in the frequent issuance of weak recommendations. Despite this challenge, these recommendations regarding the management of children with septic shock and other sepsis-associated organ dysfunction provide a foundation for consistent care to improve outcomes and inform future research.

Sustainable implementation of antibiotic stewardship on a surgical intensive care unit evaluated over a 10-year period

OBJECTIVE

This retrospective observational study examined the implementation of antibiotic stewardship (ABS) on the surgical intensive care unit (SICU) of a specialized academic teaching hospital.

METHODS

Application density of antimicrobial agents (ADA), substance class change, development of resistance, and clinical outcomes were investigated with reference to ABS in three intervals over a 10-year period: the pre-intervention phase (2008-2010), the intervention phase (2011-2014), and the post-intervention phase (2015-2017).

RESULTS

Following the introduction of ABS, ADA was reduced from 89.3 recommended daily doses/100 patient days (RDD/100 PD) at the pre-intervention phase to 68.0 RDD/100 PD at the post-intervention phase. The antibiotic ADA (AB-ADA) similarly showed a significant decrease from 83.3 to 62.0 RDD/100 PD (p < 0.0001). The case mix index (CMI), which describes the average case severity across patients and mortality on the SICU was not significantly different comparing intervention and post-intervention phase. It was also possible to achieve a substance class change following the introduction of ABS. There was no obvious change in bacterial resistance rates.

CONCLUSION

The study demonstrates a sustainable effect of the implementation of ABS, which was sustained through the post-intervention phase.

Antibiotic Dosing for Critically Ill Adult Patients Receiving Intermittent Hemodialysis, Prolonged Intermittent Renal Replacement Therapy, and Continuous Renal Replacement Therapy: An Update

Objective: To summarize current antibiotic dosing recommendations in critically ill patients receiving intermittent hemodialysis (IHD), prolonged intermittent renal replacement therapy (PIRRT), and continuous renal replacement therapy (CRRT), including considerations for individualizing therapy. Data Sources: A literature search of PubMed from January 2008 to May 2019 was performed to identify English-language literature in which dosing recommendations were proposed for antibiotics commonly used in critically ill patients receiving IHD, PIRRT, or CRRT. Study Selection and Data Extraction: All pertinent reviews, selected studies, and references were evaluated to ensure appropriateness for inclusion. Data Synthesis: Updated empirical dosing considerations are proposed for antibiotics in critically ill patients receiving IHD, PIRRT, and CRRT with recommendations for individualizing therapy. Relevance to Patient Care and Clinical Practice: This review defines principles for assessing renal function, identifies RRT system properties affecting drug clearance and drug properties affecting clearance during RRT, outlines pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic dosing considerations, reviews pertinent updates in the literature, develops updated empirical dosing recommendations, and highlights important factors for individualizing therapy in critically ill patients. Conclusions: Appropriate antimicrobial selection and dosing are vital to improve clinical outcomes. Dosing recommendations should be applied cautiously with efforts to consider local epidemiology and resistance patterns, antibiotic dosing and infusion strategies, renal replacement modalities, patient-specific considerations, severity of illness, residual renal function, comorbidities, and patient response to therapy. Recommendations provided herein are intended to serve as a guide in developing and revising therapy plans individualized to meet a patient's needs.

The Role of Antibiotic Stewardship in Promoting Appropriate Antibiotic Use

Antibiotics are one of the most significant medical discoveries in human history. The widespread use of antibiotics has resulted in the emergence of antibiotic-resistant pathogens. This fact, coupled with the paucity of new antibiotic developments, has spurred efforts to combat antibiotic resistance. One of the most critical components of these efforts is antibiotic stewardship, a multidisciplinary endeavor, employing a collection of interventions in a variety of health care settings with the aim of promoting appropriate utilization of antibiotics. This article describes antibiotic stewardship programs and key practices used to minimize the development and spread of antibiotic-resistant pathogens including the optimization of antibiotic pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics, the application of rapid diagnostic tools, and the use of computerized provider order entry tools.

Optimization of the treatment with beta-lactam antibiotics in critically ill patients-guidelines from the French Society of Pharmacology and Therapeutics (Société Française de Pharmacologie et Thérapeutique-SFPT) and the French Society of Anaesthesia and Intensive Care Medicine (Société Française d'Anesthésie et Réanimation-SFAR)

BACKGROUND

Beta-lactam antibiotics (βLA) are the most commonly used antibiotics in the intensive care unit (ICU). ICU patients present many pathophysiological features that cause pharmacokinetic (PK) and pharmacodynamic (PD) specificities, leading to the risk of underdosage. The French Society of Pharmacology and Therapeutics (SFPT) and the French Society of Anaesthesia and Intensive Care Medicine (SFAR) have joined forces to provide guidelines on the optimization of beta-lactam treatment in ICU patients.

METHODS

A consensus committee of 18 experts from the two societies had the mission of producing these guidelines. The entire process was conducted independently of any industry funding. A list of questions formulated according to the PICO model (Population, Intervention, Comparison, and Outcomes) was drawn-up by the experts. Then, two bibliographic experts analysed the literature published since January 2000 using predefined keywords according to PRISMA recommendations. The quality of the data identified from the literature was assessed using the GRADE® methodology. Due to the lack of powerful studies having used mortality as main judgement criteria, it was decided, before drafting the recommendations, to formulate only "optional" recommendations.

RESULTS

After two rounds of rating and one amendment, a strong agreement was reached by the SFPT-SFAR guideline panel for 21 optional recommendations and a recapitulative algorithm for care covering four areas: (i) pharmacokinetic variability, (ii) PK-PD relationship, (iii) administration modalities, and (iv) therapeutic drug monitoring (TDM). The most important recommendations regarding βLA administration in ICU patients concerned (i) the consideration of the many sources of PK variability in this population; (ii) the definition of free plasma concentration between four and eight times the Minimal Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) of the causative bacteria for 100% of the dosing interval as PK-PD target to maximize bacteriological and clinical responses; (iii) the use of continuous or prolonged administration of βLA in the most severe patients, in case of high MIC bacteria and in case of lower respiratory tract infection to improve clinical cure; and (iv) the use of TDM to improve PK-PD target achievement.

CONCLUSIONS

The experts strongly suggest the use of personalized dosing, continuous or prolonged infusion and therapeutic drug monitoring when administering βLA in critically ill patients.

Damage control orthopaedics: State of the art

Damage control orthopaedics (DCO) originally consisted of the provisional immobilisation of long bone - mainly femur - fractures in order to achieve the advantages of early treatment and to minimise the risk of complications, such as major pain, fat embolism, clotting, pathological inflammatory response, severe haemorrhage triggering the lethal triad, and the traumatic effects of major surgery on a patient who is already traumatised (the “second hit” effect). In recent years, new locations have been added to the DCO concept, such as injuries to the pelvis, spine and upper limbs. Nonetheless, this concept has not yet been validated in well-designed prospective studies, and much controversy remains. Indeed, some researchers believe the indiscriminate application of DCO might be harmful and produce substantial and unnecessary expense. In this respect, too, normalised parameters associated with the acid-base system have been proposed, under a concept termed early appropriate care, in the view that this would enable patients to receive major surgical procedures in an approach offering the advantages of early total care together with the apparent safety of DCO. This paper discusses the diagnosis and treatment of severely traumatised patients managed in accordance with DCO and highlights the possible drawbacks of this treatment principle.

Antimicrobial stewardship for acute-care hospitals: An Asian perspective

Inappropriate use of antibiotics is contributing to a serious antimicrobial resistance problem in Asian hospitals. Despite resource constraints in the region, all Asian hospitals should implement antimicrobial stewardship (AMS) programs to optimize antibiotic treatment, improve patient outcomes, and minimize antimicrobial resistance. This document describes a consensus statement from a panel of regional experts to help multidisciplinary AMS teams design programs that suit the needs and resources of their hospitals. In general, AMS teams must decide on appropriate interventions (eg, prospective audit and/or formulary restriction) for their hospital, focusing on the most misused antibiotics and problematic multidrug-resistant organisms. This focus is likely to include carbapenem use with the goal to reduce carbapenem-resistant gram-negative bacteria. Rather than initially trying to introduce a comprehensive, hospital-wide AMS program, it would be practical to begin by pilot testing a simple program based on 1 achievable core intervention for the hospital. AMS team members must work together to determine the most suitable AMS interventions to implement in their hospitals and how best to put them into practice. Continuous monitoring and feedback of outcomes to the AMS teams, hospital administration, and prescribers will enhance sustainability of the AMS programs.

Optimisation of antimicrobial dosing based on pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic principles

While suboptimal dosing of antimicrobials has been attributed to poorer clinical outcomes, clinical cure and mortality advantages have been demonstrated when target pharmacokinetic (PK) and pharmacodynamic (PD) indices for various classes of antimicrobials were achieved to maximise antibiotic activity. Dosing optimisation requires a good knowledge of PK/PD principles. This review serves to provide a foundation in PK/PD principles for the commonly prescribed antibiotics (β-lactams, vancomycin, fluoroquinolones and aminoglycosides), as well as dosing considerations in special populations (critically ill and obese patients). PK principles determine whether an appropriate dose of antimicrobial reaches the intended pathogen(s). It involves the fundamental processes of absorption, distribution, metabolism and elimination, and is affected by the antimicrobial's physicochemical properties. Antimicrobial pharmacodynamics define the relationship between the drug concentration and its observed effect on the pathogen. The major indicator of the effect of the antibiotics is the minimum inhibitory concentration. The quantitative relationship between a PK and microbiological parameter is known as a PK/PD index, which describes the relationship between dose administered and the rate and extent of bacterial killing. Improvements in clinical outcomes have been observed when antimicrobial agents are dosed optimally to achieve their respective PK/PD targets. With the rising rates of antimicrobial resistance and a limited drug development pipeline, PK/PD concepts can foster more rational and individualised dosing regimens, improving outcomes while simultaneously limiting the toxicity of antimicrobials.

Challenges in Individualizing Drug Dosage for Intensive Care Unit Patients: Is Augmented Renal Clearance What We Really Want to Know? Some Suggested Management Approaches and Clinical Software Tools

Acutely ill intensive care unit (ICU) patients often have large apparent volumes of distribution of drugs and, because of this, their drug clearance (CL) is usually also increased. 'Augmented renal Cl' is a current issue in the management of drug therapy for acutely ill and unstable ICU patients; however, Cl, the product of volume and the rate constant for excretion, describes only a theoretical volume of drug cleared per unit of time. Information of the actual rate of movement of the drug itself is obscured. It is suggested that the most useful clinical information is given by describing drug volume and elimination rate constant separately. This also permits better understanding of the patient's separate issues of fluid balance and drug elimination, especially when dialysis, renal replacement therapy, or extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) may be used, and facilitates management of these two important separate clinical issues. Optimal management of drug therapy also requires optimal methods embodied in clinical software to describe drug behavior in these highly unstable patients, and considerably more data than for ordinary patients. The interacting multiple model (IMM) clinical software facilitates management of both fluid balance and drug therapy in these unstable patients. Illustrative cases are discussed, and new monitoring and management strategies are suggested. Like other ICU skills, physicians need to learn optimal tools for managing drug therapy in the ICU. Further work should help evaluate these new approaches.

To which extent can we decrease antibiotic duration in critically ill patients?

INTRODUCTION

Inadequate empirical antibiotic therapy is associated with higher mortality in critically ill patients with severe infections. Nevertheless, prolonged duration of antibiotic treatment is also potentially harmful. Development of new infections with more resistant pathogens is one of the arguments against the administration of prolonged courses of antibiotics. Areas covered: We aim to describe the optimal duration of antimicrobial therapy in the most common infections affecting critically ill patients. A literature search was performed to identify all clinical trials, observational studies, meta-analysis, and reviews about this topic from PubMed. Expert commentary: Diverse observational studies have reported a poor outcome in critically ill patients without a documented infection who receive prolonged antibiotic therapy. We summarize the available information about the optimal duration of antimicrobial therapy in critically ill patients with severe infections including community-acquired pneumonia, intra-abdominal infections, bacteremia, meningitis and urinary-tract infections as well as the clinical consequences of short antimicrobial courses in certain severe infections. The utility of procalcitonin to reduce the duration of antibiotics is also discussed. Finally, we give clear recommendations about the length of treatment for the most common infections in critically ill patients.

Patient Safety in Burn Care: Application of Evidence-based Medicine to Improve Outcomes

This article reviews 5 areas in burn care that increasingly use evidence-based medicine to optimize quality and safety: resuscitation protocols, transfusion practices, vascular access, venous thromboembolic prophylaxis, and rational use of antibiotics.

High target attainment for β-lactam antibiotics in intensive care unit patients when actual minimum inhibitory concentrations are applied

Patients in the intensive care unit (ICU) are at risk for suboptimal levels of β-lactam antibiotics, possibly leading to poor efficacy. Our aim was to investigate whether the actual minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) compared to the more commonly used arbitrary epidemiological cut-off values (ECOFFs) would affect target attainment in ICU patients on empirical treatment with broad-spectrum β-lactam antibiotics and to identify risk factors for not reaching target. In a prospective, multicenter study, ICU patients ≥18 years old and treated with piperacillin/tazobactam, meropenem, or cefotaxime were included. Clinical and laboratory data were recorded. Serum trough antibiotic levels from three consecutive days were analyzed by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS). The target was defined as the free trough concentration above the MIC (100% fT_>MIC). MIC_ECOFF was used as the target and, when available, the actual MIC (MIC_ACTUAL) was applied. The median age of the patients was 70 years old, 52% (58/111) were males, and the median estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) was 48.0 mL/min/1.73 m². The rate of patients reaching 100% fT > MIC_ACTUAL was higher (89%, 31/35) compared to the same patients using MIC_ECOFF (60%, p = 0.002). In total, 55% (61/111) reached 100% fT > MIC_ECOFF. Increased renal clearance was independently associated to not reaching 100% fT > MIC_ECOFF. On repeated sampling, >77% of patients had stable serum drug levels around the MIC_ECOFF. Serum concentrations of β-lactam antibiotics vary extensively between ICU patients. The rate of patients not reaching target was markedly lower for the actual MIC than when the arbitrary MIC based on the ECOFF was used, which is important to consider in future studies.