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Dakal TC, Dhabhai B, Pant A, Moar K, Chaudhary K, Yadav V, Ranga V, Sharma NK, Kumar A, Maurya PK, Maciaczyk J, Schmidt‐Wolf IGH, Sharma A. Oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes: functions and roles in cancers. MedComm (Beijing) 2024; 5:e582. [PMID: 38827026 PMCID: PMC11141506 DOI: 10.1002/mco2.582] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2023] [Revised: 04/21/2024] [Accepted: 04/26/2024] [Indexed: 06/04/2024] Open
Abstract
Cancer, being the most formidable ailment, has had a profound impact on the human health. The disease is primarily associated with genetic mutations that impact oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes (TSGs). Recently, growing evidence have shown that X-linked TSGs have specific role in cancer progression and metastasis as well. Interestingly, our genome harbors around substantial portion of genes that function as tumor suppressors, and the X chromosome alone harbors a considerable number of TSGs. The scenario becomes even more compelling as X-linked TSGs are adaptive to key epigenetic processes such as X chromosome inactivation. Therefore, delineating the new paradigm related to X-linked TSGs, for instance, their crosstalk with autosome and involvement in cancer initiation, progression, and metastasis becomes utmost importance. Considering this, herein, we present a comprehensive discussion of X-linked TSG dysregulation in various cancers as a consequence of genetic variations and epigenetic alterations. In addition, the dynamic role of X-linked TSGs in sex chromosome-autosome crosstalk in cancer genome remodeling is being explored thoroughly. Besides, the functional roles of ncRNAs, role of X-linked TSG in immunomodulation and in gender-based cancer disparities has also been highlighted. Overall, the focal idea of the present article is to recapitulate the findings on X-linked TSG regulation in the cancer landscape and to redefine their role toward improving cancer treatment strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tikam Chand Dakal
- Department of BiotechnologyGenome and Computational Biology LabMohanlal Sukhadia UniversityUdaipurRajasthanIndia
| | - Bhanupriya Dhabhai
- Department of BiotechnologyGenome and Computational Biology LabMohanlal Sukhadia UniversityUdaipurRajasthanIndia
| | - Anuja Pant
- Department of BiochemistryCentral University of HaryanaMahendergarhHaryanaIndia
| | - Kareena Moar
- Department of BiochemistryCentral University of HaryanaMahendergarhHaryanaIndia
| | - Kanika Chaudhary
- School of Life Sciences. Jawaharlal Nehru UniversityNew DelhiIndia
| | - Vikas Yadav
- School of Life Sciences. Jawaharlal Nehru UniversityNew DelhiIndia
| | - Vipin Ranga
- Dearptment of Agricultural BiotechnologyDBT‐NECAB, Assam Agricultural UniversityJorhatAssamIndia
| | | | - Abhishek Kumar
- Manipal Academy of Higher EducationManipalKarnatakaIndia
- Institute of Bioinformatics, International Technology ParkBangaloreIndia
| | - Pawan Kumar Maurya
- Department of BiochemistryCentral University of HaryanaMahendergarhHaryanaIndia
| | - Jarek Maciaczyk
- Department of Stereotactic and Functional NeurosurgeryUniversity Hospital of BonnBonnGermany
| | - Ingo G. H. Schmidt‐Wolf
- Department of Integrated OncologyCenter for Integrated Oncology (CIO)University Hospital BonnBonnGermany
| | - Amit Sharma
- Department of Stereotactic and Functional NeurosurgeryUniversity Hospital of BonnBonnGermany
- Department of Integrated OncologyCenter for Integrated Oncology (CIO)University Hospital BonnBonnGermany
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Chen L, Liu S, Tao Y. Regulating tumor suppressor genes: post-translational modifications. Signal Transduct Target Ther 2020; 5:90. [PMID: 32532965 PMCID: PMC7293209 DOI: 10.1038/s41392-020-0196-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 195] [Impact Index Per Article: 48.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2019] [Revised: 05/19/2020] [Accepted: 05/24/2020] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Tumor suppressor genes cooperate with each other in tumors. Three important tumor suppressor proteins, retinoblastoma (Rb), p53, phosphatase, and tensin homolog deleted on chromosome ten (PTEN) are functionally associated and they regulated by post-translational modification (PTMs) as well. PTMs include phosphorylation, SUMOylation, acetylation, and other novel modifications becoming growing appreciated. Because most of PTMs are reversible, normal cells use them as a switch to control the state of cells being the resting or proliferating, and PTMs also involve in cell survival and cell cycle, which may lead to abnormal proliferation and tumorigenesis. Although a lot of studies focus on the importance of each kind of PTM, further discoveries shows that tumor suppressor genes (TSGs) form a complex "network" by the interaction of modification. Recently, there are several promising strategies for TSGs for they change more frequently than carcinogenic genes in cancers. We here review the necessity, characteristics, and mechanisms of each kind of post-translational modification on Rb, p53, PTEN, and its influence on the precise and selective function. We also discuss the current antitumoral therapies of Rb, p53 and PTEN as predictive, prognostic, and therapeutic target in cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ling Chen
- Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Cancer Invasion, Ministry of Education, Department of Pathology, Xiangya Hospital, School of Basic Medicine, Central South University, 410078, Changsha, Hunan, China
- NHC Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis (Central South University), Cancer Research Institute, Central South University, 410078, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Shuang Liu
- Department of Oncology, Institute of Medical Sciences, National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, 410008, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Yongguang Tao
- Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Cancer Invasion, Ministry of Education, Department of Pathology, Xiangya Hospital, School of Basic Medicine, Central South University, 410078, Changsha, Hunan, China.
- NHC Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis (Central South University), Cancer Research Institute, Central South University, 410078, Changsha, Hunan, China.
- Hunan Key Laboratory of Early Diagnosis and Precision Therapy, Department of Thoracic Surgery, Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, 410011, Changsha, China.
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Miller WB, Torday JS. A systematic approach to cancer: evolution beyond selection. Clin Transl Med 2017; 6:2. [PMID: 28050778 PMCID: PMC5209328 DOI: 10.1186/s40169-016-0131-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2016] [Accepted: 12/12/2016] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Cancer is typically scrutinized as a pathological process characterized by chromosomal aberrations and clonal expansion subject to stochastic Darwinian selection within adaptive cellular ecosystems. Cognition based evolution is suggested as an alternative approach to cancer development and progression in which neoplastic cells of differing karyotypes and cellular lineages are assessed as self-referential agencies with purposive participation within tissue microenvironments. As distinct self-aware entities, neoplastic cells occupy unique participant/observer status within tissue ecologies. In consequence, neoplastic proliferation by clonal lineages is enhanced by the advantaged utilization of ecological resources through flexible re-connection with progenitor evolutionary stages.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - John S Torday
- Harbor-UCLA Medical Center, Torrance, CA, 90502, USA
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Lazebnik Y. The shock of being united and symphiliosis. Another lesson from plants? Cell Cycle 2015; 13:2323-9. [PMID: 25483182 DOI: 10.4161/cc.29704] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Yuri Lazebnik
- a Yale Cardiovascular Research Center; New Haven, CT USA
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Mukhopadhyay KD, Bandyopadhyay A, Chang TTA, Elkahloun AG, Cornell JE, Yang J, Goins BA, Yeh IT, Sun LZ. Isolation and characterization of a metastatic hybrid cell line generated by ER negative and ER positive breast cancer cells in mouse bone marrow. PLoS One 2011; 6:e20473. [PMID: 21673810 PMCID: PMC3106006 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0020473] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2011] [Accepted: 04/26/2011] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Background The origin and the contribution of breast tumor heterogeneity to its progression are not clear. We investigated the effect of a growing orthotopic tumor formed by an aggressive estrogen receptor (ER)-negative breast cancer cell line on the metastatic potential of a less aggressive ER-positive breast cancer cell line for the elucidation of how the presence of heterogeneous cancer cells might affect each other's metastatic behavior. Methods ER positive ZR-75-1/GFP/puro cells, resistant to puromycin and non-tumorigenic/non-metastatic without exogenous estrogen supplementation, were injected intracardiacally into mice bearing growing orthotopic tumors, formed by ER negative MDA-MB-231/GFP/Neo cells resistant to G418. A variant cell line B6, containing both estrogen-dependent and -independent cells, were isolated from GFP expressing cells in the bone marrow and re-inoculated in nude mice to generate an estrogen-independent cell line B6TC. Results The presence of ER negative orthotopic tumors resulted in bone metastasis of ZR-75-1 without estrogen supplementation. The newly established B6TC cell line was tumorigenic without estrogen supplementation and resistant to both puromycin and G418 suggesting its origin from the fusion of MDA-MB-231/GFP/Neo and ZR-75-1/GFP/puro in the mouse bone marrow. Compared to parental cells, B6TC cells were more metastatic to lung and bone after intracardiac inoculation. More significantly, B6TC mice also developed brain metastasis, which was not observed in the MDA-MB-231/GFP/Neo cell-inoculated mice. Low expression of ERα and CD24, and high expression of EMT-related markers such as Vimentin, CXCR4, and Integrin-β1 along with high CD44 and ALDH expression indicated stem cell-like characteristics of B6TC. Gene microarray analysis demonstrated a significantly different gene expression profile of B6TC in comparison to those of parental cell lines. Conclusions Spontaneous generation of the novel hybrid cell line B6TC, in a metastatic site with stem cell-like properties and propensity to metastasize to brain, suggest that cell fusion can contribute to tumor heterogeneity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keya De Mukhopadhyay
- Department of Cellular and Structural Biology, University of Texas Health Science Center, San Antonio, Texas, United States of America
| | - Abhik Bandyopadhyay
- Department of Cellular and Structural Biology, University of Texas Health Science Center, San Antonio, Texas, United States of America
| | - Ting-Tung A. Chang
- Department of Radiology, University of Texas Health Science Center, San Antonio, Texas, United States of America
| | - Abdel G. Elkahloun
- Genome Technology Branch, National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - John E. Cornell
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, University of Texas Health Science Center, San Antonio, Texas, United States of America
| | - Junhua Yang
- Department of Cellular and Structural Biology, University of Texas Health Science Center, San Antonio, Texas, United States of America
| | - Beth A. Goins
- Department of Radiology, University of Texas Health Science Center, San Antonio, Texas, United States of America
| | - I-Tien Yeh
- Department of Pathology, University of Texas Health Science Center, San Antonio, Texas, United States of America
| | - Lu-Zhe Sun
- Department of Cellular and Structural Biology, University of Texas Health Science Center, San Antonio, Texas, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Dong J, Zhang Q, Huang Q, Chen H, Shen Y, Fei X, Zhang T, Diao Y, Wu Z, Qin Z, Lan Q, Gu X. Glioma stem cells involved in tumor tissue remodeling in a xenograft model. J Neurosurg 2010; 113:249-60. [PMID: 20225923 DOI: 10.3171/2010.2.jns09335] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
OBJECT Although tissue remodeling plays a crucial role in the tumorigenesis and progression of human gliomas, its mechanisms remain largely uncertain. In the current study, the authors investigated the potential role of human glioma stem cells (hGSCs) in the tissue remodeling of gliomas. METHODS Transgenic nude mice with ubiquitous green fluorescent protein (GFP) expression were obtained by crossing nontransgenic NC athymic nude mice with the GFP transgenic C57BL/6J mice. As a result, GFP was expressed in essentially all tissues in the offspring. Human glioma stem cells were then orthotopically implanted into the GFP nude mice in an effort to assess the hGSC-host brain interactions and thereby elucidate the roles of tissue remodeling during tumorigenesis and progression of human gliomas. RESULTS All of the essential tissues in the GFP transgenic nude mice, including the brain, fluoresced green under an excitation light; therefore, tumor remodeling by hGSCs can be unambiguously distinguished from a bright green background composed of adjacent host GFP-expressing components. This technique enabled the authors to address the following concerns: 1) hGSCs were involved in the invasiveness of gliomas and adjacent stroma degradation of the host. 2) An in vivo study demonstrated that cell fusion occurred between hGSCs and host cells. 3) Vasculogenic mimicry--the formation of patterned, tubular networks of vascular channels by transdifferentiated hGSCs--could be observed. 4) Differentiation mimicry--namely, the differentiation direction of hGSCs bearing multidifferentiation potentials--seemed to be decided by the local host cellular microenviroment. CONCLUSIONS The results of this study indicated that the GFP transgenic nude mice model with GFP expression in essentially all tissues could be obtained by crossing nontransgenic athymic nude mice with transgenic GFP mice. This model should greatly expand our knowledge of glioma-host interactions. The data indicated that hGSCs might play a decisive role in tissue remodeling of gliomas as well.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Dong
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Suzhou University, Suzhou, People's Republic of China
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Hybrid cells differentiate to hepatic lineage cells and repair oxidative damage. Cell Mol Biol Lett 2010; 15:451-72. [PMID: 20563703 PMCID: PMC6275737 DOI: 10.2478/s11658-010-0018-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2009] [Accepted: 05/26/2010] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Hybrid cells derived from stem cells play an important role in organogenesis, tissue regeneration and cancer formation. However, the fate of hybrid cells and their range of function are poorly understood. Fusing stem cells and somatic cells induces somatic cell reprogramming, and the resulting hybrid cells are embryonic stem cell-like cells. Therefore, we hypothesize that fusion-induced hybrid cells may behave like ES cells in certain microenvironments. In this study, human hepatic cells were induced to apoptosis with H(2)O(2), and then co-cultured with hybrid cells that had been derived from mouse ES cells and human hepatic cells using a transwell. After co-culturing, the degree of apoptosis was evaluated using Annexin-V/PI double-staining analysis, flow cytometry and Western-blot. We observed that H(2)O(2)-induced cell apoptosis was inhibited by co-culture. In addition, the activity of injury-related enzymes (GSH-Px, LDH and SOD) and the level of albumin release in the co-culture system trended toward the level of normal undamaged hepatic cells. The stably increased levels of secretion of ALB in the co-culture system also confirmed that co-culture with hybrid cells helped in recovery from injury. The fate of the hybrid cells was studied by analyzing their gene expression and protein expression profiles. The results of RT-PCR indicated that during co-culturing, like ES cells, hybrid cells differentiated into hepatic lineage cells. Hybrid cells transcripted genes from both parental cell genomes. Via immunocytochemical analysis, hepatic directional differentiation of the hybrid cells was also confirmed. After injecting the hybrid cells into the mouse liver, the GFP-labeled transplanted cells were distributed in the hepatic lobules and engrafted into the liver structure. This research expands the knowledge of fusion-related events and the possible function of hybrid cells. Moreover, it could indicate a new route of differentiation from pluripotent cells to tissue-specific cells via conditional co-culture.
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Parris GE. Cell-cell fusion and cancer: germ-cell cancer and teratomas. Med Hypotheses 2008; 72:226. [PMID: 19084344 DOI: 10.1016/j.mehy.2008.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2008] [Revised: 10/14/2008] [Accepted: 11/05/2008] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Parris GE. Cell-cell fusion is the rate-limiting step in causation and progression of clinically significant cancers. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2008; 185:113. [PMID: 18722882 DOI: 10.1016/j.cancergencyto.2008.05.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2008] [Revised: 05/13/2008] [Accepted: 05/14/2008] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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Parris GE. Chromosomal instability (CIN) leads to clone extinction, not cancer. Med Hypotheses 2008; 71:983. [PMID: 18783893 DOI: 10.1016/j.mehy.2008.07.046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2008] [Revised: 07/13/2008] [Accepted: 07/16/2008] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
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Parris GE. 2-Deoxy-d-glucose as a potential drug against fusogenic viruses including HIV. Med Hypotheses 2008; 70:776-82. [DOI: 10.1016/j.mehy.2007.08.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2007] [Accepted: 08/05/2007] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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Cancer metastasis and in vivo dissemination of tissue-dwelling pathogens: extrapolation of mechanisms and exchange of treatment strategies thereof. Med Hypotheses 2007; 70:375-7. [PMID: 17826000 DOI: 10.1016/j.mehy.2007.04.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2007] [Accepted: 04/29/2007] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Most cancer cells would not result in devastating tumours if it were not for their ability to metastasize. The process of cancer metastasis involves significant cell shape, motility, and adhesive changes of pre-cancerous cells, and the remodelling of the extracellular matrix, as well as cognate properties of neighbouring normal cells. Such changes will be hereafter referred to as "tissue fluidity changes". A number of pathogens are known to disseminate to distant organs from sites of infection within a few days. A compromise on the ability to disseminate rapidly could be deleterious to the pathogen (e.g. the pathogen might be cleared before it reaches immuno-privileged sites within its host). Several ways of dissemination could be envisioned - and some are known to occur - ranging from rather passive such as outgrowth and lysis of tissues, residence in the bloodstream, "hitch-hiking" on migratory cells of the immune and lymphatic systems to an active dissemination process involving tissue fluidity changes similar to those that cancer cells invoke to be able to metastasize. The latter is particularly expected to be an important mechanism for the in vivo dissemination of tissue-dwelling pathogens. The mechanisms behind metastasis can, therefore, be viewed as part of the unifying features between cancer cells and pathogens other than their characteristic high proliferation index (at least in one form in the case of digenetic parasites). The current paper presents a synthesis of the hitherto reported but rather scattered data that broadly reinforce the premise of unifying metastasis processes. The overwhelming research outcome in cancer metastasis might therefore serve as a spring board for facilitating the studies of pathogen metastasis and, importantly, relevant cancer treatment strategies can be adopted to combat infectious diseases.
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Parris GE. Anti-fusion drug candidates that may have beneficial effects against cancer, virus infections and autoimmune disorders. Med Hypotheses 2007; 70:463. [PMID: 17656030 DOI: 10.1016/j.mehy.2007.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2007] [Revised: 06/13/2007] [Accepted: 06/14/2007] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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Parris GE. Why G3139 works poorly in cancer trials but might work well against HIV. Med Hypotheses 2007; 69:537-40. [PMID: 17363184 PMCID: PMC7126701 DOI: 10.1016/j.mehy.2007.01.044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/25/2006] [Accepted: 01/07/2007] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
The antisense drug G3139 (oblimersen sodium, Genta, Inc.) is a phosphorothioate oligodeoxynucleotide (ODN) containing unmethylated CpG units, which is targeted to suppress Bcl-2. To date, its effectiveness in cancer clinical trials has been minimal. Some suggestions are provided for that disappointment and recent citations are provided that support the idea that G3139 may be effective at clearing viral infections, specifically HIV. At the time G3139 was conceived as an anti-cancer drug candidate, it was viewed optimistically because Bcl-2 was widely believed to be the most important protein blocking p53-dependent apoptosis caused by internal stress. Since that time, we have learnt that Bcl-2 is not the only protein that inhibits apoptosis and that p53 itself is frequently malfunctioning in tumors. Thus, the anti-cancer utility of suppressing Bcl-2 in cancer cells is limited. Moreover, Bcl-2 has a role in halting the cell cycle (though p27), which may slow down tumor growth; and Bcl-2 even has pro-apoptotic roles in the execution of apoptosis initiated by external death signals (via Fas/CD95 and caspase 3). Overall, in the clinical setting, G3139 usually has statistically significant but medically unimportant benefit. These results have greatly diminished the enthusiasm for the drug especially when the side effects are considered. Specifically, the unmethylated CpG ODN (and/or the phosphorothioate group) activates the immune system, but this potentially important anti-cancer effect is lost when the immune cells undergo premature apoptosis apparently because their Bcl-2 levels have been lowered by the antisense effect of G3139. While this effect on immune cells is usually undesirable, it is exactly what would be useful for activating immune cells, initiating provirus transcription in retrovirus-infected cells, and facilitating selective apoptosis of these infected cells. In general, G3139 might have benefit in clearing chronic infections by intracellular parasites including viruses (HIV, SIV, HTLV, HBV, coronavirus, etc.). Indeed, G3139 has been shown to cause apoptosis in EBV-infected cells leading to clearance of the virus.
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Haslberger A, Varga F, Karlic H. Recursive causality in evolution: a model for epigenetic mechanisms in cancer development. Med Hypotheses 2006; 67:1448-54. [PMID: 16844314 DOI: 10.1016/j.mehy.2006.05.047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2006] [Revised: 05/23/2006] [Accepted: 05/23/2006] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Interactions between adaptative and selective processes are illustrated in the model of recursive causality as defined in Rupert Riedl's systems theory of evolution. One of the main features of this theory also termed as theory of evolving complexity is the centrality of the notion of 'recursive' or 'feedback' causality - 'the idea that every biological effect in living systems, in some way, feeds back to its own cause'. Our hypothesis is that "recursive" or "feedback" causality provides a model for explaining the consequences of interacting genetic and epigenetic mechanisms which are known to play a key role in development of cancer. Epigenetics includes any process that alters gene activity without changes of the DNA sequence. The most important epigenetic mechanisms are DNA-methylation and chromatin remodeling. Hypomethylation of so-called oncogenes and hypermethylation of tumor suppressor genes appear to be critical determinants of cancer. Folic acid, vitamin B12 and other nutrients influence the function of enzymes that participate in various methylation processes by affecting the supply of methyl groups into a variety of molecules which may be directly or indirectly associated with cancerogenesis. We present an example from our own studies by showing that vitamin D3 has the potential to de-methylate the osteocalcin-promoter in MG63 osteosarcoma cells. Consequently, a stimulation of osteocalcin synthesis can be observed. The above mentioned enzymes also play a role in development and differentiation of cells and organisms and thus illustrate the close association between evolutionary and developmental mechanisms. This enabled new ways to understand the interaction between the genome and environment and may improve biomedical concepts including environmental health aspects where epigenetic and genetic modifications are closely associated. Recent observations showed that methylated nucleotides in the gene promoter may serve as a target for solar UV-induced mutations of the p53 tumor suppressor gene. This illustrates the close interaction of genetic and epigenetic mechanisms in cancerogenesis resulting from changes in transcriptional regulation and its contribution to a phenotype at the micro- or macroevolutionary level. Above-mentioned interactions of genetic and epigenetic mechanisms in oncogenesis defy explanation by plain linear causality, things like the continuing adaptability of complex systems. They can be explained by the concept of recursive causality and has introduced molecular biology into the realm of cognition science and systems theory: based on the notion of so-called feedback- or recursive causality a model for epigenetic mechanisms with relevance for oncology and biomedicine is provided.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Haslberger
- Ludwig Boltzmann Institute for Leukemia Research and Hematology, Hanusch Hospital, Heinrich Collinstrasse 30, and Vienna Ecology Center, University of Vienna, Austria
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Lang K, Entschladen F, Weidt C, Zaenker KS. Tumor immune escape mechanisms: impact of the neuroendocrine system. Cancer Immunol Immunother 2006; 55:749-60. [PMID: 16435128 PMCID: PMC11030197 DOI: 10.1007/s00262-006-0126-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2005] [Accepted: 01/04/2006] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Tumor cells act upon, and react to both their proximate and more distant environment, the mechanisms by which this is achieved being both autocrine and paracrine in nature. This interaction, however, takes place not only between adjacent malignant cells, but also non-malignant cells such as those of the immune system, the latter also partaking in the modeling of the tumor environment. Although tumor cells descend from normal tissue cells and thus bear in classical immunological terms 'self signals', it is evident that the immune system is able to recognize tumor cells as a harassment for the body and in consequence tries to eliminate these cells. On the counterpart, tumor cells acquire various characteristics which allow them to evade this immunological surveillance, and have been collectively coined with the term "tumor escape mechanisms". This review will describe and summarize current understanding of tumor escape strategies, and also more closely elaborate on the modulatory role of the neuroendocrine system in the immune system-tumor cell interaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kerstin Lang
- Institute of Immunology, Witten/Herdecke University, Stockumer Str. 10, 58448 Witten, Germany.
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Weber F, Shen L, Fukino K, Patocs A, Mutter GL, Caldes T, Eng C. Total-genome analysis of BRCA1/2-related invasive carcinomas of the breast identifies tumor stroma as potential landscaper for neoplastic initiation. Am J Hum Genet 2006; 78:961-72. [PMID: 16685647 PMCID: PMC1474086 DOI: 10.1086/504090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2006] [Accepted: 03/09/2006] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
We have shown that the tumor microenvironment of sporadic breast cancer is diverse in genetic alterations and contributes to the cancer phenotype. The dynamic morphology of the mammary gland might be of special interest in hereditary breast/ovarian cancer syndrome (HBOC). We hypothesized that hotspots of loss of heterozygosity or allelic imbalance (LOH/AI) within the tumor stroma of BRCA1/2-related breast cancers provide an impaired mammary stroma that could facilitate later malignant transformation of the breast epithelium. We conducted a total genome LOH/AI scan of DNA derived from the epithelium and stroma of 51 BRCA1/2-related breast cancers, using 372 microsatellite markers. We compared these data with those from a set of 134 sporadic breast cancers. HBOC-related breast cancers accumulated significantly more genetic alterations than did sporadic breast cancers. BRCA1/2-related breast cancer stroma showed LOH/AI at 59.7% of all loci analyzed, similar to the average frequency of LOH/AI observed in the epithelium (66.2%). This is remarkably different from sporadic breast cancers, for which the average epithelial LOH/AI frequency (36.7%) far exceeds the average stromal LOH/AI frequency (28.4%) (P=.03). We identified 11 hotspot loci of LOH/AI in the BRCA1/2 stroma, encompassing genes such as POLD1, which functions in DNA replication, and SDHB. In a subset of samples, enriched for BRCA1 cases, we found 45.0% overall LOH/AI in the stroma, which was significantly higher than the 41.8% LOH/AI observed in corresponding epithelium (P=.04). Together, our data indicate that, in HBOC-related breast cancers, the accumulation of genomic instability in the cancer stroma coincides with that in the neoplastic epithelium, and we postulate that such a genetically unstable stroma might facilitate a microenvironment that functions as a landscaper that promotes genomic instability in the epithelium and, subsequently, neoplastic transformation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frank Weber
- Genomic Medicine Institute, Lerner Research Institute, and Taussig Cancer Center, Cleveland Clinic Foundation, and Department of Genetics and CASE Comprehensive Cancer Center, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland; Division of Biometrics, School of Public Health, Ohio State University, Columbus; Department of Neurosurgery, Nippon Medical School, Tokyo; Department of Pathology, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston; Laboratory of Molecular Oncology, San Carlos University Hospital, Madrid; and Cancer Research UK Human Cancer Genetics Research Group, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Lei Shen
- Genomic Medicine Institute, Lerner Research Institute, and Taussig Cancer Center, Cleveland Clinic Foundation, and Department of Genetics and CASE Comprehensive Cancer Center, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland; Division of Biometrics, School of Public Health, Ohio State University, Columbus; Department of Neurosurgery, Nippon Medical School, Tokyo; Department of Pathology, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston; Laboratory of Molecular Oncology, San Carlos University Hospital, Madrid; and Cancer Research UK Human Cancer Genetics Research Group, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Koichi Fukino
- Genomic Medicine Institute, Lerner Research Institute, and Taussig Cancer Center, Cleveland Clinic Foundation, and Department of Genetics and CASE Comprehensive Cancer Center, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland; Division of Biometrics, School of Public Health, Ohio State University, Columbus; Department of Neurosurgery, Nippon Medical School, Tokyo; Department of Pathology, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston; Laboratory of Molecular Oncology, San Carlos University Hospital, Madrid; and Cancer Research UK Human Cancer Genetics Research Group, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Attila Patocs
- Genomic Medicine Institute, Lerner Research Institute, and Taussig Cancer Center, Cleveland Clinic Foundation, and Department of Genetics and CASE Comprehensive Cancer Center, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland; Division of Biometrics, School of Public Health, Ohio State University, Columbus; Department of Neurosurgery, Nippon Medical School, Tokyo; Department of Pathology, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston; Laboratory of Molecular Oncology, San Carlos University Hospital, Madrid; and Cancer Research UK Human Cancer Genetics Research Group, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - George L. Mutter
- Genomic Medicine Institute, Lerner Research Institute, and Taussig Cancer Center, Cleveland Clinic Foundation, and Department of Genetics and CASE Comprehensive Cancer Center, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland; Division of Biometrics, School of Public Health, Ohio State University, Columbus; Department of Neurosurgery, Nippon Medical School, Tokyo; Department of Pathology, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston; Laboratory of Molecular Oncology, San Carlos University Hospital, Madrid; and Cancer Research UK Human Cancer Genetics Research Group, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Trinidad Caldes
- Genomic Medicine Institute, Lerner Research Institute, and Taussig Cancer Center, Cleveland Clinic Foundation, and Department of Genetics and CASE Comprehensive Cancer Center, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland; Division of Biometrics, School of Public Health, Ohio State University, Columbus; Department of Neurosurgery, Nippon Medical School, Tokyo; Department of Pathology, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston; Laboratory of Molecular Oncology, San Carlos University Hospital, Madrid; and Cancer Research UK Human Cancer Genetics Research Group, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Charis Eng
- Genomic Medicine Institute, Lerner Research Institute, and Taussig Cancer Center, Cleveland Clinic Foundation, and Department of Genetics and CASE Comprehensive Cancer Center, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland; Division of Biometrics, School of Public Health, Ohio State University, Columbus; Department of Neurosurgery, Nippon Medical School, Tokyo; Department of Pathology, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston; Laboratory of Molecular Oncology, San Carlos University Hospital, Madrid; and Cancer Research UK Human Cancer Genetics Research Group, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
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Parris G. The cell clone ecology hypothesis and the cell fusion model of cancer progression and metastasis (II): three pathways for spontaneous cell-cell fusion and escape from the intercellular matrix. Med Hypotheses 2006; 67:172-6. [PMID: 16516400 DOI: 10.1016/j.mehy.2006.01.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2006] [Accepted: 01/12/2006] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The two-stage initiation-progression model of cancer is widely accepted. Initiation appears to result most often from accumulation of damage to the DNA expressed as multiple mutations in the phenotype. Unsymmetrical chromosome segregation during mitosis of normal or mutated cells produces aneuploid cells and also contributes to the evolution of neoplasia. However, it has been pointed out (Parris GE. Med Hypotheses 2005;65:993-4 and 2006;66:76-83) that DNA damage and loss of chromosomes are much more likely to lead the mutant clones of cells to extinction than to successful expansion (e.g., an example of Muller's Ratchet). It was argued that aneuploid neoplasia represent new parasite species that successfully evolve to devour their hosts by incorporating sex-like redistribution of chromosomes through spontaneous or virus-catalyzed cell-cell fusion into their life-cycle. Spontaneous cell-cell fusion is generally blocked by the intercellular matrix to which the cells are bound via surface adhesion molecules (frequently glycoproteins, e.g., CD44). In order for progression of matrix-contained neoplasia toward clinically significant cancer to occur, the parasite cells must escape from the matrix and fuse. Release from the matrix also allows the parasite cells to invade adjacent tissues and metastasize to remote locations. Both invasion and metastasis likely involve fusion of the migrating parasite cells with fusion-prone blast cells. There are at least three pathways through which parasite cells can be liberated from the confining matrix: (i) Their adhesion molecules may be modified (e.g., by hyper-glycosylation) so that they can no longer grip the matrix. (ii) Their adhesion molecules or matrix may be saturated with other ligands (e.g., polyamines). (iii) Their adhesion molecules may be cleaved from the cell surface or the matrix itself may be cleaved (e.g., by MMPs or ADAMs). It is hypothesized that mobilization of parasite cells and cell-cell fusion go hand-in-hand in the progression of neoplasia to clinically significant cancer through invasion and metastasis. The latency between tumor recognition and exposure to mutagens and the increased incidence of cancer with age can probably be related to slow breakdown of the intercellular matrix that provides a barrier to cell-cell fusion.
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