1
|
Garcês A, Pires I, Garcês S. Ancient Diseases in Vertebrates: Tumours through the Ages. Animals (Basel) 2024; 14:1474. [PMID: 38791691 PMCID: PMC11117314 DOI: 10.3390/ani14101474] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2024] [Revised: 05/08/2024] [Accepted: 05/13/2024] [Indexed: 05/26/2024] Open
Abstract
Paleo-oncology studies neoplastic diseases in fossilised animals, including human remains. Recent advancements have enabled more accurate diagnoses of ancient pathologies despite the inherent challenges in identifying tumours in fossils-such as the rarity of well-preserved specimens, the predominance of bone remains, and the difficulty in distinguishing neoplastic from non-neoplastic lesions. This study compiles reports of tumours in fossilised animals, highlighting that neoplasms are present in a wide range of vertebrates and drawing comparisons to modern instances of similar diseases. The findings underscore the multifactorial aetiology of tumours, which involves genetic, environmental, and lifestyle factors, and suggest that tumours have been around for at least 350 million years.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Andreia Garcês
- Exotic and Wildlife Service, Veterinary Hospital University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, Quinta dos Prados, 4500-801 Vila Real, Portugal
- CECAV, Centre for Animal Sciences and Veterinary Studies, Associate Laboratory for Animal and Veterinary Science—AL4AnimalS, University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal;
| | - Isabel Pires
- CECAV, Centre for Animal Sciences and Veterinary Studies, Associate Laboratory for Animal and Veterinary Science—AL4AnimalS, University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal;
| | - Sara Garcês
- Earth and Memory Institute, 6120-750 Mação, Portugal;
- Polytechnic Institute of Tomar (IPT), Geosciences Center (UID73), 2300-000 Tomar, Portugal
- Geosciences Centre, University of Coimbra (u. ID73–FCT), 3001-401 Coimbra, Portugal
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Kozlov AP. Carcino-Evo-Devo, A Theory of the Evolutionary Role of Hereditary Tumors. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24108611. [PMID: 37239953 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24108611] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2023] [Revised: 05/08/2023] [Accepted: 05/09/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023] Open
Abstract
A theory of the evolutionary role of hereditary tumors, or the carcino-evo-devo theory, is being developed. The main hypothesis of the theory, the hypothesis of evolution by tumor neofunctionalization, posits that hereditary tumors provided additional cell masses during the evolution of multicellular organisms for the expression of evolutionarily novel genes. The carcino-evo-devo theory has formulated several nontrivial predictions that have been confirmed in the laboratory of the author. It also suggests several nontrivial explanations of biological phenomena previously unexplained by the existing theories or incompletely understood. By considering three major types of biological development-individual, evolutionary, and neoplastic development-within one theoretical framework, the carcino-evo-devo theory has the potential to become a unifying biological theory.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Andrei P Kozlov
- Vavilov Institute of General Genetics, Russian Academy of Sciences, 3 Gubkina Street, 117971 Moscow, Russia
- Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University, 29 Polytekhnicheskaya Street, 195251 St. Petersburg, Russia
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
The Theory of Carcino-Evo-Devo and Its Non-Trivial Predictions. Genes (Basel) 2022; 13:genes13122347. [PMID: 36553613 PMCID: PMC9777766 DOI: 10.3390/genes13122347] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2022] [Revised: 12/04/2022] [Accepted: 12/08/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
To explain the sources of additional cell masses in the evolution of multicellular organisms, the theory of carcino-evo-devo, or evolution by tumor neofunctionalization, has been developed. The important demand for a new theory in experimental science is the capability to formulate non-trivial predictions which can be experimentally confirmed. Several non-trivial predictions were formulated using carcino-evo-devo theory, four of which are discussed in the present paper: (1) The number of cellular oncogenes should correspond to the number of cell types in the organism. The evolution of oncogenes, tumor suppressor and differentiation gene classes should proceed concurrently. (2) Evolutionarily new and evolving genes should be specifically expressed in tumors (TSEEN genes). (3) Human orthologs of fish TSEEN genes should acquire progressive functions connected with new cell types, tissues and organs. (4) Selection of tumors for new functions in the organism is possible. Evolutionarily novel organs should recapitulate tumor features in their development. As shown in this paper, these predictions have been confirmed by the laboratory of the author. Thus, we have shown that carcino-evo-devo theory has predictive power, fulfilling a fundamental requirement for a new theory.
Collapse
|
4
|
Korzh VP, Gasanov EV. Genetics of Atavism. Russ J Dev Biol 2022. [DOI: 10.1134/s1062360422030043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Atavisms have attracted people’s attention for a long time. First, atavisms excited their imagination and created fertile ground for myths and superstitions. With the development of science, atavisms became the subject of investigation, which soon provided evidence to support evolutionary theory. However, at the molecular level, the formation of atavisms remained insufficiently understood. Recent progress in comparative genomics and molecular developmental biology has helped in understanding the processes underlying the formation of one of the human atavisms: the vestigial tail.
Collapse
|
5
|
Kozlov AP. Mammalian tumor-like organs. 1. The role of tumor-like normal organs and atypical tumor organs in the evolution of development (carcino-evo-devo). Infect Agent Cancer 2022; 17:2. [PMID: 35012580 PMCID: PMC8751115 DOI: 10.1186/s13027-021-00412-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2021] [Accepted: 12/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Earlier I hypothesized that hereditary tumors might participate in the evolution of multicellular organisms. I formulated the hypothesis of evolution by tumor neofunctionalization, which suggested that the evolutionary role of hereditary tumors might consist in supplying evolving multicellular organisms with extra cell masses for the expression of evolutionarily novel genes and the origin of new cell types, tissues, and organs. A new theory—the carcino-evo-devo theory—has been developed based on this hypothesis. Main text My lab has confirmed several non-trivial predictions of this theory. Another non-trivial prediction is that evolutionarily new organs if they originated from hereditary tumors or tumor-like structures, should recapitulate some tumor features in their development. This paper reviews the tumor-like features of evolutionarily novel organs. It turns out that evolutionarily new organs such as the eutherian placenta, mammary gland, prostate, the infantile human brain, and hoods of goldfishes indeed have many features of tumors. I suggested calling normal organs, which have many tumor features, the tumor-like organs. Conclusion Tumor-like organs might originate from hereditary atypical tumor organs and represent the part of carcino-evo-devo relationships, i.e., coevolution of normal and neoplastic development. During subsequent evolution, tumor-like organs may lose the features of tumors and the high incidence of cancer and become normal organs without (or with almost no) tumor features.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- A P Kozlov
- Vavilov Institute of General Genetics, Russian Academy of Sciences, 3, Gubkina Street, Moscow, Russia, 117971. .,Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University, 29, Polytekhnicheskaya Street, St. Petersburg, Russia, 195251.
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Kozlov AP. Biological Computation and Compatibility Search in the Possibility Space as the Mechanism of Complexity Increase During Progressive Evolution. Evol Bioinform Online 2022. [DOI: 10.1177/11769343221110654] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The idea of computational processes, which take place in nature, for example, DNA computation, is discussed in the literature. DNA computation that is going on in the immunoglobulin locus of vertebrates shows how the computations in the biological possibility space could operate during evolution. We suggest that the origin of evolutionarily novel genes and genome evolution constitute the original intrinsic computation of the information about new structures in the space of unrealized biological possibilities. Due to DNA computation, the information about future structures is generated and stored in DNA as genetic information. In evolving ontogenies, search algorithms are necessary, which can search for information about evolutionary innovations and morphological novelties. We believe that such algorithms include stochastic gene expression, gene competition, and compatibility search at different levels of structural organization. We formulate the increase in complexity principle in terms of biological computation and hypothesize the possibility of in silico computing of future functions of evolutionarily novel genes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- AP Kozlov
- Vavilov Institute of General Genetics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia
- Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University, St. Petersburg, Russia
- The Biomedical Center, St. Petersburg, Russia
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Matyunina EA, Emelyanov AV, Kurbatova TV, Makashov AA, Mizgirev IV, Kozlov AP. Evolutionarily novel genes are expressed in transgenic fish tumors and their orthologs are involved in development of progressive traits in humans. Infect Agent Cancer 2019; 14:46. [PMID: 31827597 PMCID: PMC6896781 DOI: 10.1186/s13027-019-0262-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2019] [Accepted: 11/20/2019] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Abstract Earlier we suggested a new hypothesis of the possible evolutionary role of hereditary tumors (Kozlov, Evolution by tumor Neofunctionalization, 2014), and described a new class of genes – tumor specifically expressed, evolutionarily novel (TSEEN) genes - that are predicted by this hypothesis (Kozlov, Infect Agents Cancer 11:34, 2016). In this paper we studied evolutionarily novel genes expressed in fish tumors after regression, as a model of evolving organs. As evolutionarily novel genes may not yet have organismal functions, we studied the acquisition of new gene functions by comparing fish evolutionarily novel genes with their human orthologs. We found that many genes involved in development of progressive traits in humans (lung, mammary gland, placenta, ventricular septum, etc.) originated in fish and are expressed in fish tumors and tumors after regression. These findings support a possible evolutionary role of hereditary tumors, and in particular the hypothesis of evolution by tumor neofunctionalization. Research highlights Earlier we described a new class of genes that are tumor-specifically expressed and evolutionarily novel (TSEEN). As the functions of TSEEN genes are often uncertain, we decided to study TSEEN genes of fishes so that we could trace the appearance of their new functions in higher vertebrates. We found that many human genes which are involved in development of progressive traits (placenta development, mammary gland and lung development etc.,) originated in fishes and are expressed in fish tumors.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- E A Matyunina
- 1Research Institute of Ultra-Pure Biologicals, Ministry of Public Health of the Russian Federation, St.-Petersburg, Russia.,2Peter the Great Saint-Petersburg Polytechnic University (SPbPU), St.-Petersburg, Russia
| | - A V Emelyanov
- 3The Biomedical Center (BMC), St.-Petersburg, Russia.,4Institute for Research on Cancer and Aging (IRCAN), Nice, France
| | - T V Kurbatova
- 1Research Institute of Ultra-Pure Biologicals, Ministry of Public Health of the Russian Federation, St.-Petersburg, Russia.,2Peter the Great Saint-Petersburg Polytechnic University (SPbPU), St.-Petersburg, Russia.,3The Biomedical Center (BMC), St.-Petersburg, Russia
| | - A A Makashov
- 1Research Institute of Ultra-Pure Biologicals, Ministry of Public Health of the Russian Federation, St.-Petersburg, Russia.,2Peter the Great Saint-Petersburg Polytechnic University (SPbPU), St.-Petersburg, Russia.,3The Biomedical Center (BMC), St.-Petersburg, Russia
| | - I V Mizgirev
- 5Petrov Research Institute of Oncology, St.-Petersburg, Russia
| | - A P Kozlov
- 1Research Institute of Ultra-Pure Biologicals, Ministry of Public Health of the Russian Federation, St.-Petersburg, Russia.,2Peter the Great Saint-Petersburg Polytechnic University (SPbPU), St.-Petersburg, Russia.,3The Biomedical Center (BMC), St.-Petersburg, Russia.,6Vavilov Institute of General Genetics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Makashov AA, Malov SV, Kozlov AP. Oncogenes, tumor suppressor and differentiation genes represent the oldest human gene classes and evolve concurrently. Sci Rep 2019; 9:16410. [PMID: 31712655 PMCID: PMC6848199 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-52835-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2018] [Accepted: 10/24/2019] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Earlier we showed that human genome contains many evolutionarily young or novel genes with tumor-specific or tumor-predominant expression. We suggest calling such genes Tumor Specifically Expressed, Evolutionarily New (TSEEN) genes. In this paper we performed a study of the evolutionary ages of different classes of human genes, using homology searches in genomes of different taxa in human lineage. We discovered that different classes of human genes have different evolutionary ages and confirmed the existence of TSEEN gene classes. On the other hand, we found that oncogenes, tumor-suppressor genes and differentiation genes are among the oldest gene classes in humans and their evolution occurs concurrently. These findings confirm non-trivial predictions made by our hypothesis of the possible evolutionary role of hereditary tumors. The results may be important for better understanding of tumor biology. TSEEN genes may become the best tumor markers.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- A A Makashov
- Biomedical Center, Viborgskaya str. 8, Saint-Petersburg, 194044, Russia.,Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University, Politekhnicheskaya ul., 29, St. Petersburg, 195251, Russia.,Research Institute of Ultra Pure Biologicals, 7 Pudozhskaya str., St. Petersburg, 197110, Russia
| | - S V Malov
- Theodosius Dobzhansky Center for Genome Bioinformatics, St.-Petersburg State University, 41A, Sredniy av., St. Petersburg, 199004, Russia.,Department of Algorithmic Mathematics, St.-Petersburg Electrotechnical University, 5, Prof. Popova str, St. Petersburg, 197376, Russia
| | - A P Kozlov
- Biomedical Center, Viborgskaya str. 8, Saint-Petersburg, 194044, Russia. .,Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University, Politekhnicheskaya ul., 29, St. Petersburg, 195251, Russia. .,Research Institute of Ultra Pure Biologicals, 7 Pudozhskaya str., St. Petersburg, 197110, Russia. .,Vavilov Institute of General Genetics, 3 Gubkina str., Moscow, 119333, Russia.
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Kirkpatrick CL, Campbell RA, Hunt KJ. Paleo-oncology: Taking stock and moving forward. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PALEOPATHOLOGY 2018; 21:3-11. [PMID: 29778410 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpp.2018.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2017] [Revised: 02/02/2018] [Accepted: 02/03/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
This article serves as an introduction to the International Journal of Paleopathology's special issue, Paleo-oncology: Taking Stock and Moving Forward. Reflecting the goals of the special issue, this paper has been designed to provide an overview of the current state of paleo-oncology, to introduce new and innovative paleo-oncological research and ideas, and to serve as a catalyst for future discussions and progress. This paper begins with an overview of the paleo-oncological evidence that can be found in ancient remains, followed by a summary of significant paleo-oncological findings and methodological advances to date. Thereafter, challenges in estimating past prevalence of cancer are highlighted and recommendations are made for future advancements in paleo-oncological research. The ground-breaking studies included in the special issue and referenced throughout this introduction embody the many ways in which progress can be made in the field of paleo-oncology.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Casey L Kirkpatrick
- Department of Anthropology, Social Science Center Room 3326, University of Western Ontario, 1151 Richmond St., London, Ontario, N6A 3K7, Canada; Paleo-oncology Research Organization, Minneapolis, MN, USA.
| | - Roselyn A Campbell
- Cotsen Institute of Archaeology, University of California, Los Angeles, 308 Charles E. Young Drive North, A210 Fowler Building/Box 951510, Los Angeles, CL, 90095-1510, USA; Paleo-oncology Research Organization, Minneapolis, MN, USA.
| | - Kathryn J Hunt
- Paleo-oncology Research Organization, Minneapolis, MN, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Kozlov AP. Expression of evolutionarily novel genes in tumors. Infect Agent Cancer 2016; 11:34. [PMID: 27437030 PMCID: PMC4949931 DOI: 10.1186/s13027-016-0077-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2016] [Accepted: 05/18/2016] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
The evolutionarily novel genes originated through different molecular mechanisms are expressed in tumors. Sometimes the expression of evolutionarily novel genes in tumors is highly specific. Moreover positive selection of many human tumor-related genes in primate lineage suggests their involvement in the origin of new functions beneficial to organisms. It is suggested to consider the expression of evolutionarily young or novel genes in tumors as a new biological phenomenon, a phenomenon of TSEEN (tumor specifically expressed, evolutionarily novel) genes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- A. P. Kozlov
- The Biomedical Center and Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University, St. Petersburg, Russia
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
The novelty of human cancer/testis antigen encoding genes in evolution. Int J Genomics 2013; 2013:105108. [PMID: 23691492 PMCID: PMC3652184 DOI: 10.1155/2013/105108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2012] [Revised: 01/16/2013] [Accepted: 02/13/2013] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
In order to be inherited in progeny generations, novel genes should originate in germ cells. Here, we suggest that the testes may play a special “catalyst” role in the birth and evolution of new genes. Cancer/testis antigen encoding genes (CT genes) are predominantly expressed both in testes and in a variety of tumors. By the criteria of evolutionary novelty, the CT genes are, indeed, novel genes. We performed homology searches for sequences similar to human CT in various animals and established that most of the CT genes are either found in humans only or are relatively recent in their origin. A majority of all human CT genes originated during or after the origin of Eutheria. These results suggest relatively recent origin of human CT genes and align with the hypothesis of the special role of the testes in the evolution of the gene families.
Collapse
|
12
|
Samusik N, Krukovskaya L, Meln I, Shilov E, Kozlov AP. PBOV1 is a human de novo gene with tumor-specific expression that is associated with a positive clinical outcome of cancer. PLoS One 2013; 8:e56162. [PMID: 23418531 PMCID: PMC3572036 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0056162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2012] [Accepted: 01/10/2013] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
PBOV1 is a known human protein-coding gene with an uncharacterized function. We have previously found that PBOV1 lacks orthologs in non-primate genomes and is expressed in a wide range of tumor types. Here we report that PBOV1 protein-coding sequence is human-specific and has originated de novo in the primate evolution through a series of frame-shift and stop codon mutations. We profiled PBOV1 expression in multiple cancer and normal tissue samples and found that it was expressed in 19 out of 34 tumors of various origins but completely lacked expression in any of the normal adult or fetal human tissues. We found that, unlike the cancer/testis antigens that are typically controlled by CpG island-containing promoters, PBOV1 was expressed from a GC-poor TATA-containing promoter which was not influenced by CpG demethylation and was inactive in testis. Our analysis of public microarray data suggests that PBOV1 activation in tumors could be dependent on the Hedgehog signaling pathway. Despite the recent de novo origin and the lack of identifiable functional signatures, a missense SNP in the PBOV1 coding sequence has been previously associated with an increased risk of breast cancer. Using publicly available microarray datasets, we found that high levels of PBOV1 expression in breast cancer and glioma samples were significantly associated with a positive outcome of the cancer disease. We also found that PBOV1 was highly expressed in primary but not in recurrent high-grade gliomas, suggesting the presence of a negative selection against PBOV1-expressing cancer cells. Our findings could contribute to the understanding of the mechanisms behind de novo gene origin and the possible role of tumors in this process.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nikolay Samusik
- Max Planck Institute of Cell Biology and Genetics, Dresden, Germany.
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
13
|
Transcriptional noise as a driver of gene evolution. J Theor Biol 2012; 293:27-33. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jtbi.2011.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2010] [Revised: 09/16/2011] [Accepted: 10/03/2011] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
|
14
|
[Tumor stem cell research - basis and challenge for diagnosis and therapy]. Wien Klin Wochenschr 2010; 122:423-36. [PMID: 20645015 DOI: 10.1007/s00508-010-1408-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2010] [Accepted: 06/10/2010] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Biological features of tumor cells relevant to progression, metastasis, and prognosis in cancer patients have been investigated for many years. During the past few years, the concept of tumor stem cells has gained widespread acceptance. The cancer stem cell (CSC) model is based on the observation that continuous growth of tumors depends on a small population of immature neoplastic cells with unlimited proliferative potential. In contrast to these CSC, more mature clonal cells in the same neoplasm undergo apoptosis and die after a variable number of cell divisions. The self-renewal capacity of CSC plays a central role in this scenario and enables permanent tumor cell repopulation in vivo in patients as well as in experimental animals, e.g., immunodeficient mice. Based on the stem cell concept, it is clear that the success of an anti-neoplastic approach depends on efficient targeting and elimination of CSC. An important aspect of CSC is their intrinsic resistance against conventional drugs. Therefore, a major focus in current research is molecular targets and their expression in CSC, with the goal to use targeted drugs for CSC elimination. It is the hope for the future that therapeutic approaches involving CSC-targeting concepts will lead to sustained remission and thus improvement of prognosis in leukemia and cancer patients.
Collapse
|