Air monitoring of selected volatile organic compounds in wineries using passive sampling and headspace-gas chromatography–mass spectrometry

Investigation on air quality of specific indoor environments-spa salons located in Gdynia, Poland

Due to excessive application of essential oils and scented products in spa salons during aromatherapy and massage sessions, the elevated concentration of total volatile organic compounds (TVOCs), particularly terpenes, which are known as secondary organic aerosol (SOA) precursors, is expected there. This study was aimed at determination of VOCs with a particular regard to terpenes in air samples collected in selected spa salons located in Northern Poland. Active air sampling was conducted before and after treatments. Samples were analyzed with the use of thermal desorption gas chromatography coupled with flame-ionization detector (TD-GC-FID) and mass spectrometer (TD-GC-MS). Obtained results allowed to characterize chemical composition of indoor air of spa salons and also to relate the dependence between applied essential oil and indoor air chemical composition. It has been proved that (i) spa salons are characterized by TVOC concentrations exceeding recommended values of 300-400 μg m-3 in most of examined cases, reaching up to several thousand of micrograms per cubic meter, (ii) TVOC concentration is strictly related to salon characteristics and carried out treatments, (iii) terpenes constitute a significant part of TVOCs present in spa indoor air, from 22 up to 86%, (iv) most commonly investigated terpenes in the literature (D-limonene, α-pinene, camphene, and linalool) were also determined at the highest concentration levels in this study and (v) VOC chemical composition is strictly dependent on the type of applied essential oils. On the basis of obtained results, it may be stated that extensive application of essential oils rich in terpenes can significantly alter indoor air chemistry of spa salons, thereby influencing health and well-being of employees working there. Graphical abstract.

Analysis of benzene air quality standards, monitoring methods and concentrations in indoor and outdoor environment

Benzene is a proven carcinogen. Its synergistic action with other pollutants can damage different components of the biosphere. Literature comparing the air quality standards of benzene, its monitoring methods and global concentrations are sparse. This study compiles the worldwide available air quality standards for benzene and highlights the importance of strict and uniform standards all over the world. It was found that out of the 193 United Nation member states, only 53 countries, including the European Union member states, have ambient air quality standard for benzene. Even where standards were available, in most cases, they were not protective of public health. An extensive literature review was conducted to compile the available monitoring and analysis methods for benzene, and found that the most preferred method, i.e, analyzing by Gas Chromatography and Mass spectroscopy is not cost effective and not suitable for real-time continuous monitoring. The study compared the concentrations of benzene in the indoor and outdoor air reported from different countries. Though the higher concentrations of benzene noticed in the survey were mostly from Asian countries, both in the case of indoor and outdoor air, the concentrations were not statistically different across the various continents. Based on the analyzed data, the average benzene level in the ambient air of Asian countries (371 μg/m3) was approximately 3.5 times higher than the indoor benzene levels (111 μg/m3). Similarly, the outdoor to the indoor ratio of benzene level in European and North American Countries were found to be 1.2 and 7.7, respectively. This compilation will help the policymakers to include/revise the standards for benzene in future air quality guideline amendments.

Assessment of air passive sampling uptakes for volatile organic compounds using VERAM devices

A calibration chamber has been designed and employed for the simple and easy determination of uptake sampling rate (R_S) of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from air using passive samplers. A flow of clean air was continuously spiked, at a constant VOC concentration, by the microinjection of a standard solution by means of a T-type tube. The developed system allowed the complete evaporation at room temperature of the standard solution in acetone and the air concentration of VOCs was easily controlled by the regulation of the clean air flow, the standard solution concentration and its flow. Active sampling was employed for monitoring the true concentration of the evaluated compounds inside the calibration chamber, using Tenax-filled desorption tubes and a low flow personal air sampling pump. Versatile, easy and rapid atmospheric monitor (VERAM) devices were employed for the passive sampling of benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, xylenes, α-pinene, camphene, myrcene, p-cymene, and limonene from air. The R_S values obtained for the passive sampling of VOCs, using the developed calibration chamber, were in the range of 1.3-16.0m³day^-1 in accordance to previous calibration studies performed for VERAM samplers. The developed calibration chamber provided a continuous flow with a constant concentration of the evaluated compounds that allowed the simultaneous deployment of several samplers for a rapid establishment of R_S for a passive sampler type and the easy comparison between different devices.