Low potential detection of doxorubicin using a sensitive electrochemical sensor based on glassy carbon electrode modified with silver nanoparticles-supported poly(chitosan): A new platform in pharmaceutical analysis

Electrochemistry as a Powerful Tool for Investigations of Antineoplastic Agents: A Comprehensive Review

Cancer is most frequently treated with antineoplastic agents (ANAs) that are hazardous to patients undergoing chemotherapy and the healthcare workers who handle ANAs in the course of their duties. All aspects related to hazardous oncological drugs illustrate that the monitoring of ANAs is essential to minimize the risks associated with these drugs. Among all analytical techniques used to test ANAs, electrochemistry holds an important position. This review, for the first time, comprehensively describes the progress done in electrochemistry of ANAs by means of a variety of bare or modified (bio)sensors over the last four decades (in the period of 1982-2021). Attention is paid not only to the development of electrochemical sensing protocols of ANAs in various biological, environmental, and pharmaceutical matrices but also to achievements of electrochemical techniques in the examination of the interactions of ANAs with deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), carcinogenic cells, biomimetic membranes, peptides, and enzymes. Other aspects, including the enantiopurity studies, differentiation between single-stranded and double-stranded DNA without using any label or tag, studies on ANAs degradation, and their pharmacokinetics, by means of electrochemical techniques are also commented. Finally, concluding remarks that underline the existence of a significant niche for the basic electrochemical research that should be filled in the future are presented.

Fabrication of Mn-TPP/RGO Tailored Glassy Carbon Electrode for Doxorubicin Sensing

Cancer is a long-standing disease, and the use of anticancer drugs can cause many different harmful side effects. Therefore, the quantitative analysis of anticancer drugs is crucial. Among all the analytical techniques that have been utilized for the detection of doxorubicin, electrochemical sensors have drawn exceptional consideration because they are simple, affordable, and highly sensitive. Manganese tetraphenylporphyrin decorated reduced graphene oxide (Mn-TPP/RGO), tetraphenylporphyrin decorated reduced graphene oxide (TPP/RGO), and reduced graphene oxide (RGO) nanostructure based glassy carbon electrodes (GCEs) were fabricated for the detection of doxorubicin (DOX). The synthesized materials were characterized by FTIR, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy (UV/vis), energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS), and X-ray diffraction (XRD). Doxorubicin detection was performed using differential pulse voltammetry (DPV), electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), and cyclic voltammetry (CV). Among the prepared electrodes, Mn-TPP/RGO modified GCE gave an optimum peak current at pH 3. The Mn-TPP/RGO modified electrode showed significant linear response range (0.1-0.6 mM); effective sensitivity (112.09 μA mM-1 cm-2); low detection limit (63.5 μM); and excellent stability, selectivity, repeatability, and reproducibility toward doxorubicin. With differential pulse voltammetry, LoD and sensitivity were 27 μM and 0.174 μA μM-1 cm-2, respectively. Real sample analysis was also performed in human serum, and it depicted reasonable recovery results for spiked doxorubicin.

N-Doped Graphene Quantum Dots Confined within Silica Nanochannels for Enhanced Electrochemical Detection of Doxorubicin

Herein, we describe a fast and highly sensitive electrochemical sensor for doxorubicin (DOX) detection based on the indium tin oxide (ITO) modified with a binary material consisting of vertically-ordered mesoporous silica films (VMSFs) and N-doped graphene quantum dots (NGQDs). VMSFs, with high permeability and efficient molecular transport capacity, is attached to the ITO electrode via a rapid and controllable electrochemical method, which can serve as a solid template for the confinement of numerous NGQDs through facile electrophoresis. By virtue of the excellent charge transfer capacity, π-π and electrostatic preconcentration effects of NGQDs, as well as the electrostatic enrichment ability of VMSF, the presented NGQDs@VMSF/ITO shows amplified electrochemical signal towards DOX with a positive charge, resulting in good analytical performance in terms of a wide linear range (5 nM~0.1 μM and 0.1~1 μM), high sensitivity (30.4 μA μM-1), and a low limit of detection (0.5 nM). Moreover, due to the molecular sieving property of VMSF, the developed NGQDs@VMSF/ITO sensor has good selectivity and works well in human serum and urine samples, with recoveries of 97.0~109%, thus providing a simple and reliable method for the direct electrochemical analysis of DOX without complex sample pretreatment procedures.

Chitosan-Based Electrochemical Sensors for Pharmaceuticals and Clinical Applications

Chitosan (CTS), a biocompatible and multifunctional material derived from chitin, has caught researchers' attention in electrochemical detection due to its unique properties. This review paper provides a comprehensive overview of the recent progress and applications of CTS-based electrochemical sensors in the analysis of pharmaceutical products and other types of samples, with a particular focus on the detection of medicinal substances. The review covers studies and developments from 2003 to 2023, highlighting the remarkable properties of CTS, such as biocompatibility, chemical versatility, and large surface area, that make it an excellent candidate for sensor modification. Combining CTS with various nanomaterials significantly enhances the detection capabilities of electrochemical sensors. Various types of CTS-based sensors are analyzed, including those utilizing carbon nanomaterials, metallic nanoparticles, conducting polymers, and molecularly imprinted CTS. These sensors exhibit excellent sensitivity, selectivity, and stability, enabling the precise and reliable detection of medications. The manufacturing strategies used for the preparation of CTS-based sensors are described, the underlying detection mechanisms are elucidated, and the integration of CTS sensors with transducer systems is highlighted. The prospects of CTS-based electrochemical sensors are promising, with opportunities for miniaturization, simultaneous detection, and real-time monitoring applications.

Anti-Biofouling Electrochemical Sensor Based on the Binary Nanocomposite of Silica Nanochannel Array and Graphene for Doxorubicin Detection in Human Serum and Urine Samples

A disposable and portable electrochemical sensor was fabricated by integrating vertically-ordered silica mesoporous films (VMSF) and electrochemically reduced graphene (ErGO) on a screen-printed carbon electrode (SPCE). Such VMSF/ErGO/SPCEs could be prepared by a simple and controllable electrochemical method. Stable growth of VMSF on SPCE could be accomplished by the introduction of an adhesive ErGO nanolayer owing to its oxygen-containing groups and two-dimensional (2D) planar structure. An outer VMSF layer acting as a protective coating is able to prevent the leakage of the inner ErGO layer from the SPCE surface. Thanks to the electrostatic permselectivity and anti-fouling capacity of VMSF and to the good electroactive activity of ErGO, binary nanocomposites of VMSF and ErGO endow the SPCE with excellent analytical performance, which could be used to quantitatively detect doxorubicin (DOX) in biological samples (human serum and urine) with high sensitivity, good long-term stability, and low sample amounts.

Recent Advances in Metal Nanocomposite-Based Electrochemical (Bio)Sensors for Pharmaceutical Analysis

Rising rates of drug abuse and pharmaceutical pollution throughout the world as a consequence of increased drug production and utilization pose a serious risk to public health and to environmental integrity. It is thus critical that reliable analytical approaches to detecting drugs and their metabolites in a range of sample matrices be developed. Recent advances in the design of nanomaterial-based electrochemical sensors and biosensors have enabled promising new approaches to pharmaceutical analysis. In particular, the development of a range of novel metal nanocomposites with enhanced catalytic properties has provided a wealth of opportunities for the design of rapid and reliable platforms for the detection of specific pharmaceutical compounds. The present review provides a comprehensive overview of representative metal nanocomposites with synergistic properties and their recent (2017-2022) application in the context of electrochemical sensing as a means of detecting specific antibiotic, tuberculostatic, analgesic, antineoplastic, antipsychotic, and antihypertensive drugs. In discussing these applications, we further explore a variety of testing-related principles, fabrication approaches, characterization techniques, and parameters associated with the sensitivity and selectivity of these sensor platforms before surveying the future outlook regarding the fabrication of next-generation (bio)sensor platforms for use in pharmaceutical analysis.

A novel 2-dimensional nanocomposite as a mediator for the determination of doxorubicin in biological samples

In our study, the electrochemical properties of a novel activated nanocomposite were studied with 2-dimensional graphitic carbon nitride/sodium dodecyl sulfate/graphene nanoplatelets on the screen-printed electrodes (2D-g-C₃N₄/SDS/GNPs/SPE). The as-fabricated sensor exhibited excellent electrochemical performance, including wide dynamic ranges from 0.03 to 1.0 and 1.0-13.5 μM with a low limit of detection (LOD) of 10.0 nM. The fabricated 2D-g-C₃N₄/SDS/GNPs/SPE electrode exhibited high sensitivity, stability, good reproducibility, reusability, and repeatability towards DOX sensing. It can be utilized in real samples, including human plasma and urine, with excellent correlations and coefficients of variation below 6.0%. Therefore, this study presents potential application values in sensing DOX with efficient performance. Finally, the accuracy was attested by comparison with high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) as the reference method, signalizing a good agreement.

Bioinorganic Synthesis of Sodium Polytungstate/Polyoxometalate in Microbial Kombucha Media for Precise Detection of Doxorubicin

In this study, we have developed a new platform of polyoxometalate as a biocompatible and electrosensitive polymeric biosensor for the accurate detection of doxorubicin. For this purpose, we used a green synthesis approach using tartaric acid, glutamic acid, and kombucha solvent. Thanks to its bioinorganic components, the biogenic approach can chemically modify and improve the performance of the biosensor, which was experimentally confirmed. Our results showed excellent sensitivity (175.72 μA·μM⁻¹·cm⁻²), low detection limit (DL, 8.12 nM), and low quantification limit (QL, 0.056 μM) when the newly developed biosensor was used. The results also show that the biosynthesized biosensor has improved performance in detecting DOX in the biological fluid with an accuracy of more than 99% depending on the components used, which underlines the high efficiency of the biosensor produced. Considering the body's physiological condition, the biosensor fabricated as a biocompatible component can show high efficiency. Therefore, its applicability for clinical use still needs to be studied in detail.

Electrochemical DNA Sensor Based on Carbon Black-Poly(Methylene Blue)-Poly(Neutral Red) Composite

The detection of small molecules interacting with DNA is important for the assessment of potential hazards related to the application of rather toxic antitumor drugs, and for distinguishing the factors related to thermal and oxidative DNA damage. In this work, a novel electrochemical DNA sensor has been proposed for the determination of antitumor drugs. For DNA sensor assembling, a glassy carbon electrode was modified with carbon black dispersed in DMF. After that, pillar [5]arene was adsorbed and Methylene blue and Neutral red were consecutively electropolymerized onto the carbon black layer. To increase sensitivity of intercalator detection, DNA was first mixed with water-soluble thiacalixarene bearing quaternary ammonium groups in the substituents at the lower rim. The deposition of the mixture on the electropolymerized dyes made it possible to detect doxorubicin as model intercalator by suppression of the redox activity of the polymerization products. The DNA sensor made it possible to determine 0.5 pM-1.0 nM doxorubicin (limit of detection 0.13 pM) with 20 min of incubation. The DNA sensor was successfully tested on spiked samples of human plasma and doxorubicin medication.

Electrochemical sensing system for the analysis of emerging contaminants in aquatic environment: A review

This survey distinguishes understudied spaces of arising impurity research in wastewaters and the habitat, and suggests bearing for future checking. Thinking about the impeding effect of toxins on human wellbeing and biological system, their discovery in various media including water is fundamental. This review sums up and assesses the latest advances in the electrochemical detecting of emerging contaminants (ECs). This survey is expected to add to the advancement in electrochemical applications towards the ECs. Different electrochemical insightful procedures like Amperometry, Voltammetry has been examined in this overview. The improvement of cutting edge nanomaterial-based electrochemical sensors and biosensors for the discovery of drug compounds has accumulated monstrous consideration because of their benefits, like high affectability and selectivity, continuous observing, and convenience has been reviewed in this survey. This survey likewise features the diverse electrochemical treatment procedures accessible for the removal of ECs.

Deep eutectic solvent synthesis of iron vanadate-decorated sulfur-doped carbon nanofiber nanocomposite: electrochemical sensing tool for doxorubicin

Detection of anticancer drug (doxorubicin) using an electrochemical sensor is developed based on a transition metal vanadate's related carbon composite material. With an environmentally friendly process, we have synthesized a metal oxide composite of iron vanadate nanoparticle assembled with sulfur-doped carbon nanofiber (FeV/SCNF). The FeV/SCNF composite was characterized using XRD, TEM, FESEM with elemental mapping, XPS and EDS. In contrast to other electrodes reported in the literature, a much-improved electrochemical efficiency is shown by FeV/SCNF composite modified electrodes. Amperometric technique has been employed at 0.25 V (vs. Ag/AgCl) for the sensitive detection of DOX within a wide range of 20 nM-542.5 μM and it possesses enhanced selectivity in presence of common interferents. The modified electrochemical sensors show high sensitivity of 46.041 μA μM^-1 cm^-2. The newly developed sensor could be used for the determination of doxorubicin in both blood serum and drug formulations with acceptable results, suggesting its feasibility for real-time applications.