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Farmer DT, Dukov JE, Chen HJ, Arata C, Hernandez-Trejo J, Xu P, Teng CS, Maxson RE, Crump JG. Cellular transitions during cranial suture establishment in zebrafish. Nat Commun 2024; 15:6948. [PMID: 39138165 PMCID: PMC11322166 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-50780-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2023] [Accepted: 07/19/2024] [Indexed: 08/15/2024] Open
Abstract
Cranial sutures separate neighboring skull bones and are sites of bone growth. A key question is how osteogenic activity is controlled to promote bone growth while preventing aberrant bone fusions during skull expansion. Using single-cell transcriptomics, lineage tracing, and mutant analysis in zebrafish, we uncover key developmental transitions regulating bone formation at sutures during skull expansion. In particular, we identify a subpopulation of mesenchyme cells in the mid-suture region that upregulate a suite of genes including BMP antagonists (e.g. grem1a) and pro-angiogenic factors. Lineage tracing with grem1a:nlsEOS reveals that this mid-suture subpopulation is largely non-osteogenic. Moreover, combinatorial mutation of BMP antagonists enriched in this mid-suture subpopulation results in increased BMP signaling in the suture, misregulated bone formation, and abnormal suture morphology. These data reveal establishment of a non-osteogenic mesenchyme population in the mid-suture region that restricts bone formation through local BMP antagonism, thus ensuring proper suture morphology.
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Affiliation(s)
- D'Juan T Farmer
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA.
| | - Jennifer E Dukov
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA
| | - Hung-Jhen Chen
- Department of Molecular, Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA
| | - Claire Arata
- Eli and Edythe Broad Center for Regenerative Medicine, Department of Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, 90033, USA
| | - Jose Hernandez-Trejo
- Eli and Edythe Broad Center for Regenerative Medicine, Department of Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, 90033, USA
| | - Pengfei Xu
- Department of Orofacial Sciences and Program in Craniofacial Biology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Camilla S Teng
- Department of Cell and Tissue Biology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA
| | - Robert E Maxson
- Department of Biochemistry, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, 90033, USA
| | - J Gage Crump
- Eli and Edythe Broad Center for Regenerative Medicine, Department of Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, 90033, USA.
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2
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Pereur R, Dambroise E. Insights into Craniofacial Development and Anomalies: Exploring Fgf Signaling in Zebrafish Models. Curr Osteoporos Rep 2024; 22:340-352. [PMID: 38739352 DOI: 10.1007/s11914-024-00873-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/22/2024] [Indexed: 05/14/2024]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW To illustrate the value of using zebrafish to understand the role of the Fgf signaling pathway during craniofacial skeletal development under normal and pathological conditions. RECENT FINDINGS Recent data obtained from studies on zebrafish have demonstrated the genetic redundancy of Fgf signaling pathway and have identified new molecular partners of this signaling during the early stages of craniofacial skeletal development. Studies on zebrafish models demonstrate the involvement of the Fgf signaling pathway at every stage of craniofacial development. They particularly emphasize the central role of Fgf signaling pathway during the early stages of the development, which significantly impacts the formation of the various structures making up the craniofacial skeleton. This partly explains the craniofacial abnormalities observed in disorders associated with FGF signaling. Future research efforts should focus on investigating zebrafish Fgf signaling during more advanced stages, notably by establishing zebrafish models expressing mutations responsible for diseases such as craniosynostoses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel Pereur
- Laboratory of Molecular and Physiopathological Bases of Osteochondrodysplasia, Université Paris Cité, INSERM UMR 1163, Imagine Institut, 24 boulevard Montparnasse, 75015, Paris, France
| | - Emilie Dambroise
- Laboratory of Molecular and Physiopathological Bases of Osteochondrodysplasia, Université Paris Cité, INSERM UMR 1163, Imagine Institut, 24 boulevard Montparnasse, 75015, Paris, France.
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3
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He(何璇) XA, Berenson A, Bernard M, Weber C, Cook LE, Visel A, Fuxman Bass JI, Fisher S. Identification of conserved skeletal enhancers associated with craniosynostosis risk genes. Hum Mol Genet 2024; 33:837-849. [PMID: 37883470 PMCID: PMC11070136 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddad182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2023] [Revised: 09/12/2023] [Accepted: 10/20/2023] [Indexed: 10/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Craniosynostosis, defined by premature fusion of one or multiple cranial sutures, is a common congenital defect affecting more than 1/2000 infants and results in restricted brain expansion. Single gene mutations account for 15%-20% of cases, largely as part of a syndrome, but the majority are nonsyndromic with complex underlying genetics. We hypothesized that the two noncoding genomic regions identified by a GWAS for craniosynostosis contain distal regulatory elements for the risk genes BMPER and BMP2. To identify such regulatory elements, we surveyed conserved noncoding sequences from both risk loci for enhancer activity in transgenic Danio rerio. We identified enhancers from both regions that direct expression to skeletal tissues, consistent with the endogenous expression of bmper and bmp2. For each locus, we also found a skeletal enhancer that also contains a sequence variant associated with craniosynostosis risk. We examined the activity of each enhancer during craniofacial development and found that the BMPER-associated enhancer is active in the restricted region of cartilage closely associated with frontal bone initiation. The same enhancer is active in mouse skeletal tissues, demonstrating evolutionarily conserved activity. Using enhanced yeast one-hybrid assays, we identified transcription factors that bind each enhancer and observed differential binding between alleles, implicating multiple signaling pathways. Our findings help unveil the genetic mechanism of the two craniosynostosis risk loci. More broadly, our combined in vivo approach is applicable to many complex genetic diseases to build a link between association studies and specific genetic mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuan Anita He(何璇)
- Department of Pharmacology, Physiology & Biophysics, Boston University, 700 Albany St, W607, Boston, MA 02118, United States
- Graduate Program in Biomolecular Medicine, Boston University, 72 East Concord St, Boston, MA 02118, United States
| | - Anna Berenson
- Department of Biology, Boston University, 5 Cummington Mall, Boston, MA 02215, United States
- Program in Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, and Biochemistry, Boston University, 5 Cummington Mall, Boston, MA 02215, United States
| | - Michelle Bernard
- Department of Pharmacology, Physiology & Biophysics, Boston University, 700 Albany St, W607, Boston, MA 02118, United States
- College of Arts and Sciences, Boston University, 5 Cummington Mall, Boston, MA 02215, United States
| | - Chris Weber
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Pennsylvania, 421 Curie Boulevard, Philadelphia, PA 19104-6058, United States
| | - Laura E Cook
- Environmental Genomics & System Biology Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, 1 Cyclotron Road, Berkeley, CA 94720, United States
| | - Axel Visel
- Environmental Genomics & System Biology Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, 1 Cyclotron Road, Berkeley, CA 94720, United States
- U.S. Department of Energy Joint Genome Institute, 1 Cyclotron Road, Berkeley, CA 94720, United States
- School of Natural Sciences, 5200 Lake Road, University of California Merced, Merced, CA 95343, United States
| | - Juan I Fuxman Bass
- Department of Biology, Boston University, 5 Cummington Mall, Boston, MA 02215, United States
| | - Shannon Fisher
- Department of Pharmacology, Physiology & Biophysics, Boston University, 700 Albany St, W607, Boston, MA 02118, United States
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4
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Fox SC, Waskiewicz AJ. Transforming growth factor beta signaling and craniofacial development: modeling human diseases in zebrafish. Front Cell Dev Biol 2024; 12:1338070. [PMID: 38385025 PMCID: PMC10879340 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2024.1338070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2023] [Accepted: 01/18/2024] [Indexed: 02/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Humans and other jawed vertebrates rely heavily on their craniofacial skeleton for eating, breathing, and communicating. As such, it is vital that the elements of the craniofacial skeleton develop properly during embryogenesis to ensure a high quality of life and evolutionary fitness. Indeed, craniofacial abnormalities, including cleft palate and craniosynostosis, represent some of the most common congenital abnormalities in newborns. Like many other organ systems, the development of the craniofacial skeleton is complex, relying on specification and migration of the neural crest, patterning of the pharyngeal arches, and morphogenesis of each skeletal element into its final form. These processes must be carefully coordinated and integrated. One way this is achieved is through the spatial and temporal deployment of cell signaling pathways. Recent studies conducted using the zebrafish model underscore the importance of the Transforming Growth Factor Beta (TGF-β) and Bone Morphogenetic Protein (BMP) pathways in craniofacial development. Although both pathways contain similar components, each pathway results in unique outcomes on a cellular level. In this review, we will cover studies conducted using zebrafish that show the necessity of these pathways in each stage of craniofacial development, starting with the induction of the neural crest, and ending with the morphogenesis of craniofacial elements. We will also cover human skeletal and craniofacial diseases and malformations caused by mutations in the components of these pathways (e.g., cleft palate, craniosynostosis, etc.) and the potential utility of zebrafish in studying the etiology of these diseases. We will also briefly cover the utility of the zebrafish model in joint development and biology and discuss the role of TGF-β/BMP signaling in these processes and the diseases that result from aberrancies in these pathways, including osteoarthritis and multiple synostoses syndrome. Overall, this review will demonstrate the critical roles of TGF-β/BMP signaling in craniofacial development and show the utility of the zebrafish model in development and disease.
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Gao W, Zhang Y, Zhang Y, Yuan Z, Chen K, Xie W, Li D, Zhang J, Zhang L. Nondestructive and high-resolution monitoring of inflammation-type skull defects regeneration on adult zebrafish with optical coherence tomography. JOURNAL OF BIOPHOTONICS 2024; 17:e202300268. [PMID: 37710141 DOI: 10.1002/jbio.202300268] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2023] [Revised: 09/11/2023] [Accepted: 09/13/2023] [Indexed: 09/16/2023]
Abstract
Optimized animal models and effective imaging techniques are exceedingly important to study cranial defects in bone loss due to chronic inflammation. In this study, the assessment procedure on a zebrafish inflammation-type skull defects model was monitored in vivo with spectral-domain optical coherence tomography (SD-OCT), and the efficacy of etidronate disodium in bone regeneration was assessed. An acute skull defect injury model was established in adult zebrafish using a stereotaxic craniotomy device. SD-OCT imaging was performed immediately following the mechanical injury. Both SD-OCT and immunohistochemistry results demonstrated an increase in inflammation-induced skull destruction within 5 days, which was confirmed by pathological experiments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weijian Gao
- GMU-GIBH Joint School of Life Sciences, The Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macau Joint Laboratory for Cell Fate Regulation and Diseases, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Yiqing Zhang
- School of Biomedical Engineering, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Yuanhan Zhang
- School of Biomedical Engineering, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Zishan Yuan
- School of Biomedical Engineering, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Keer Chen
- School of Biomedical Engineering, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Weilin Xie
- School of Biomedical Engineering, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Dan Li
- School of Biomedical Engineering, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Jian Zhang
- School of Biomedical Engineering, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Lan Zhang
- GMU-GIBH Joint School of Life Sciences, The Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macau Joint Laboratory for Cell Fate Regulation and Diseases, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
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6
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Franz-Odendaal TA, Bezuhly M. Clomiphene Citrate and Enclomiphene Hydrochloride Exposure Is Associated With Interfrontal Suture Fusion in Zebrafish. Plast Surg (Oakv) 2023; 31:383-389. [PMID: 37915340 PMCID: PMC10617459 DOI: 10.1177/22925503211057526] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2021] [Revised: 09/24/2021] [Accepted: 09/30/2021] [Indexed: 11/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Background: The last several decades have witnessed an increase in metopic craniosynostosis incidence. Population-based studies suggest that pharmacological exposure in utero may be responsible. This study examined effects of the fertility drug clomiphene citrate (CC) on calvarial development in an established model for craniofacial development, the zebrafish Danio rerio. Results: Zebrafish larvae were exposed to clomiphene citrate or its isomer enclomiphene for five days at key points during calvarial development. Larvae were then raised to adulthood in normal rearing water. Zebrafish were analyzed using whole-mount skeletal staining. We observed differential effects on survivability, growth and suture formation depending on the treatment. Treatments with CC or enclomiphene at 5.5 mm SL led to increased fusion of the interfrontal suture (p < .01) compared to controls. Conclusions: Exposure to fertility drugs appears to affect development of the cranial vault, specifically the interfrontal suture, in zebrafish. Further research is required to identify the signaling mechanisms at play. This work suggests that fertility drug treatment may contribute to the increased incidence of metopic craniosynostosis observed globally.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tamara A. Franz-Odendaal
- Department of Biology, Mount Saint Vincent University, Mount Saint Vincent University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
| | - Michael Bezuhly
- Division of Plastic Surgery, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
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7
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Yang D, Wang W, Yuan Z, Liang Y. Information-Rich Multi-Functional OCT for Adult Zebrafish Intra- and Extracranial Imaging. Bioengineering (Basel) 2023; 10:856. [PMID: 37508883 PMCID: PMC10375992 DOI: 10.3390/bioengineering10070856] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2023] [Revised: 07/03/2023] [Accepted: 07/11/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023] Open
Abstract
The zebrafish serves as a valuable animal model for both intra- and extracranial research, particularly in relation to the brain and skull. To effectively investigate the development and regeneration of adult zebrafish, a versatile in vivo imaging technique capable of showing both intra- and extracranial conditions is essential. In this paper, we utilized a high-resolution multi-functional optical coherence tomography (OCT) to obtain rich intra- and extracranial imaging outcomes of adult zebrafish, encompassing pigmentation distribution, tissue-specific information, cranial vascular imaging, and the monitoring of traumatic brain injury (TBI). Notably, it is the first that the channels through the zebrafish cranial suture, which may have a crucial function in maintaining the patency of the cranial sutures, have been observed. Rich imaging results demonstrated that a high-resolution multi-functional OCT system can provide a wealth of novel and interpretable biological information for intra- and extracranial studies of adult zebrafish.
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Affiliation(s)
- Di Yang
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Micro-Scale Optical Information Science and Technology, Institute of Modern Optics, Nankai University, Tianjin 300350, China
| | - Weike Wang
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Micro-Scale Optical Information Science and Technology, Institute of Modern Optics, Nankai University, Tianjin 300350, China
| | - Zhuoqun Yuan
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Micro-Scale Optical Information Science and Technology, Institute of Modern Optics, Nankai University, Tianjin 300350, China
| | - Yanmei Liang
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Micro-Scale Optical Information Science and Technology, Institute of Modern Optics, Nankai University, Tianjin 300350, China
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8
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Tokita M, Sato H. Creating morphological diversity in reptilian temporal skull region: A review of potential developmental mechanisms. Evol Dev 2023; 25:15-31. [PMID: 36250751 DOI: 10.1111/ede.12419] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2022] [Revised: 09/18/2022] [Accepted: 09/20/2022] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Reptilian skull morphology is highly diverse and broadly categorized into three categories based on the number and position of the temporal fenestrations: anapsid, synapsid, and diapsid. According to recent phylogenetic analysis, temporal fenestrations evolved twice independently in amniotes, once in Synapsida and once in Diapsida. Although functional aspects underlying the evolution of tetrapod temporal fenestrations have been well investigated, few studies have investigated the developmental mechanisms responsible for differences in the pattern of temporal skull region. To determine what these mechanisms might be, we first examined how the five temporal bones develop by comparing embryonic cranial osteogenesis between representative extant reptilian species. The pattern of temporal skull region may depend on differences in temporal bone growth rate and growth direction during ontogeny. Next, we compared the histogenesis patterns and the expression of two key osteogenic genes, Runx2 and Msx2, in the temporal region of the representative reptilian embryos. Our comparative analyses suggest that the embryonic histological condition of the domain where temporal fenestrations would form predicts temporal skull morphology in adults and regulatory modifications of Runx2 and Msx2 expression in osteogenic mesenchymal precursor cells are likely involved in generating morphological diversity in the temporal skull region of reptiles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masayoshi Tokita
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Toho University, Funabashi, Chiba, Japan
| | - Hiromu Sato
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Toho University, Funabashi, Chiba, Japan
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9
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Ang PS, Matrongolo MJ, Zietowski ML, Nathan SL, Reid RR, Tischfield MA. Cranium growth, patterning and homeostasis. Development 2022; 149:dev201017. [PMID: 36408946 PMCID: PMC9793421 DOI: 10.1242/dev.201017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Craniofacial development requires precise spatiotemporal regulation of multiple signaling pathways that crosstalk to coordinate the growth and patterning of the skull with surrounding tissues. Recent insights into these signaling pathways and previously uncharacterized progenitor cell populations have refined our understanding of skull patterning, bone mineralization and tissue homeostasis. Here, we touch upon classical studies and recent advances with an emphasis on developmental and signaling mechanisms that regulate the osteoblast lineage for the calvaria, which forms the roof of the skull. We highlight studies that illustrate the roles of osteoprogenitor cells and cranial suture-derived stem cells for proper calvarial growth and homeostasis. We also discuss genes and signaling pathways that control suture patency and highlight how perturbing the molecular regulation of these pathways leads to craniosynostosis. Finally, we discuss the recently discovered tissue and signaling interactions that integrate skull and cerebrovascular development, and the potential implications for both cerebrospinal fluid hydrodynamics and brain waste clearance in craniosynostosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Phillip S. Ang
- Department of Cell Biology and Neuroscience, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ 08854, USA
- University of Chicago Pritzker School of Medicine, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
| | - Matt J. Matrongolo
- Department of Cell Biology and Neuroscience, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ 08854, USA
- Child Health Institute of New Jersey, New Brunswick, NJ 08901, USA
| | | | - Shelby L. Nathan
- Laboratory of Craniofacial Biology and Development, Section of Plastic Surgery, Department of Surgery, University of Chicago Medicine, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
| | - Russell R. Reid
- Laboratory of Craniofacial Biology and Development, Section of Plastic Surgery, Department of Surgery, University of Chicago Medicine, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
| | - Max A. Tischfield
- Department of Cell Biology and Neuroscience, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ 08854, USA
- Child Health Institute of New Jersey, New Brunswick, NJ 08901, USA
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10
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Nguyen SV, Lanni D, Xu Y, Michaelson JS, McMenamin SK. Dynamics of the Zebrafish Skeleton in Three Dimensions During Juvenile and Adult Development. Front Physiol 2022; 13:875866. [PMID: 35721557 PMCID: PMC9204358 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2022.875866] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2022] [Accepted: 05/06/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Zebrafish are a valuable model for normal vertebrate skeletogenesis and the study of myriad bone disorders. Bones grow, ossify and change shape throughout the zebrafish lifetime, and 3D technologies allow us to examine skeletogenic processes in detail through late developmental stages. To facilitate analysis of shape, orientation and tissue density of skeletal elements throughout ontogeny and adulthood, we generated a high-resolution skeletal reference dataset of wild-type zebrafish development. Using microCT technology, we produced 3D models of the skeletons of individuals ranging from 12 to 25 mm standard length (SL). We analyzed the dynamics of skeletal density and volume as they increase during juvenile and adult growth. Our resource allows anatomical comparisons between meristic units within an individual-e.g., we show that the vertebral canal width increases posteriorly along the spine. Further, structures may be compared between individuals at different body sizes: we highlight the shape changes that the lower jaw undergoes as fish mature from juvenile to adult. We show that even reproductively mature adult zebrafish (17-25 mm SL) continue to undergo substantial changes in skeletal morphology and composition with continued adult growth. We provide a segmented model of the adult skull and a series of interactive 3D PDFs at a range of key stages. These resources allow changes in the skeleton to be assessed quantitatively and qualitatively through late stages of development, and can serve as anatomical references for both research and education.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stacy V Nguyen
- Biology Department, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA, United States
| | - Dominic Lanni
- Biology Department, Vassar College, Poughkeepsie, NY, United States
| | - Yongqi Xu
- Biology Department, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA, United States
| | - James S Michaelson
- Department of Pathology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Sarah K McMenamin
- Biology Department, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA, United States
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11
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Rai AR, Joy T, Rashmi KS, Rai R, Vinodini NA, Jiji PJ. Zebrafish as an experimental model for the simulation of neurological and craniofacial disorders. Vet World 2022; 15:22-29. [PMID: 35369579 PMCID: PMC8924399 DOI: 10.14202/vetworld.2022.22-29] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2021] [Accepted: 11/30/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Zebrafish have gained momentum as a leading experimental model in recent years. At present, the zebrafish vertebrate model is increasingly used due to its multifactorial similarities to humans that include genetic, organ, and cellular factors. With the emergence of novel research techniques that are very expensive, it is necessary to develop affordable and valid experimental models. This review aimed to highlight some of the most important similarities between zebrafish and humans by emphasizing the relevance of the first in simulating neurological disorders and craniofacial deformity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashwin Rohan Rai
- Department of Anatomy, Kasturba Medical College, Mangalore, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, Karnataka, India
| | - Teresa Joy
- Department of Anatomy, American University of Antigua College of Medicine, University Park, Coolidge, St. John's, Antigua
| | - K. S. Rashmi
- Department of Physiology, Kasturba Medical College, Mangalore, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, Karnataka, India
| | - Rajalakshmi Rai
- Department of Anatomy, Kasturba Medical College, Mangalore, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, Karnataka, India
| | - N. A. Vinodini
- Department of Physiology, Kasturba Medical College, Mangalore, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, Karnataka, India
| | - P. J. Jiji
- Department of Anatomy, Kasturba Medical College, Mangalore, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, Karnataka, India
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12
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Miao KZ, Cozzone A, Caetano-Lopes J, Harris MP, Fisher S. Osteoclast activity sculpts craniofacial form to permit sensorineural patterning in the zebrafish skull. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2022; 13:969481. [PMID: 36387889 PMCID: PMC9664155 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2022.969481] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2022] [Accepted: 10/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
Efforts to understand the morphogenesis of complex craniofacial structures have largely focused on the role of chondrocytes and osteoblasts. Along with these bone-creating cells, bone-resorbing osteoclasts are critical in homeostasis of adult skeletal structures, but there is currently limited information on their role in the complex morphogenetic events of craniofacial development. Fundamental aspects of skull formation and general skeletal development are conserved from zebrafish to mammals. Using a cathepsinK reporter, we documented osteoclast location in the developing zebrafish skull over several weeks, from 5.18 mm to 9.6 mm standard length (approximately 15 to 34 days post fertilization). While broad distribution of osteoclasts is consistent across individuals, they are sparse and the exact locations vary among fish and across developmental time points. Interestingly, we observed osteoclasts concentrating at areas associated with neuromasts and their associated nerves, in particular the hyomandibular foramina and around the supraorbital lateral line. These are areas of active remodeling. In contrast, other areas of rapid bone growth, such as the osteogenic fronts of the frontal and parietal bones, show no particular concentration of osteoclasts, suggesting that they play a special role in shaping bone near neuromasts and nerves. In csf1ra mutants lacking functional osteoclasts, the morphology of the cranial bone was disrupted in both areas. The hyomandibular foramen is present in the initial cartilage template, but after the initiation of ossification, the diameter of the canal is significantly smaller in the absence of osteoclasts. The diameter of the supraorbital lateral line canals was also reduced in the mutants, as was the number of pores associated with neuromasts, which allow for the passage of associated nerves through the bone. Our findings define important and previously unappreciated roles for osteoclast activity in shaping craniofacial skeletal structures with a particular role in bone modeling around peripheral cranial nerves, providing a scaffold for wiring the sensioneural system during craniofacial development. This has important implications for the formation of the evolutionarily diverse lateral line system, as well understanding the mechanism of neurologic sequelae of congenital osteoclast dysfunction in human craniofacial development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelly Z. Miao
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Boston University Aram V. Chobanian & Edward Avedisian School of Medicine, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Austin Cozzone
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Boston University Aram V. Chobanian & Edward Avedisian School of Medicine, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Joana Caetano-Lopes
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Boston Children’s Hospital, Boston, MA, United States
- Department of Genetics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Matthew P. Harris
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Boston Children’s Hospital, Boston, MA, United States
- Department of Genetics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Shannon Fisher
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Boston University Aram V. Chobanian & Edward Avedisian School of Medicine, Boston, MA, United States
- *Correspondence: Shannon Fisher,
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13
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Enny A, Shanabag A, Thompson AW, Racicot B, Braasch I, Nakamura T. Cellular mechanisms of frontal bone development in spotted gar (Lepisosteus oculatus). Dev Dyn 2021; 250:1668-1682. [PMID: 33913218 DOI: 10.1002/dvdy.356] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2020] [Revised: 04/17/2021] [Accepted: 04/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The cellular and molecular mechanisms initiating vertebrate cranial dermal bone formation is a conundrum in evolutionary and developmental biology. Decades of studies have determined the developmental processes of cranial dermal bones in various vertebrates and identified possible inducers of dermal bone. However, evolutionarily derived characters of current experimental model organisms, such as non-homologous frontal bones between teleosts and sarcopterygians, hinder investigations of ancestral and conserved mechanisms of vertebrate cranial dermal bone induction. Thus, investigating such mechanisms with animals diverging at evolutionarily informative phylogenetic nodes is imperative. RESULTS We investigated the cellular foundations of skull frontal bone formation in the spotted gar Lepisosteus oculatus, a basally branching non-teleost actinopterygian. Whole-mount bone and cartilage staining and hematoxylin-eosin section staining revealed that mesenchymal cell condensations in the frontal bone of spotted gar develop in close association with the underlying cartilage. We also identified novel aspects of frontal bone formation: enrichment of F-actin, cellular membranes, and E-cadherin in condensing cells, and extension of podia-like structures from osteoblasts to the frontal bone, which may be responsible for bone mineral transport. CONCLUSION This study highlights the process of frontal bone formation with dynamic architectural changes of mesenchymal cells in spotted gar, an emerging non-teleost fish model system, illuminating supposedly ancestral and likely conserved developmental mechanisms of skull bone formation among vertebrates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alyssa Enny
- Department of Genetics, Rutgers the State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, New Jersey, USA
| | - Anusha Shanabag
- Department of Genetics, Rutgers the State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, New Jersey, USA
| | - Andrew W Thompson
- Department of Integrative Biology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA.,Program in Ecology, Evolution, and Behavior (EEB), Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA
| | - Brett Racicot
- Department of Integrative Biology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA
| | - Ingo Braasch
- Department of Integrative Biology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA.,Program in Ecology, Evolution, and Behavior (EEB), Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA
| | - Tetsuya Nakamura
- Department of Genetics, Rutgers the State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, New Jersey, USA
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14
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Galea GL, Zein MR, Allen S, Francis-West P. Making and shaping endochondral and intramembranous bones. Dev Dyn 2020; 250:414-449. [PMID: 33314394 PMCID: PMC7986209 DOI: 10.1002/dvdy.278] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2020] [Revised: 11/13/2020] [Accepted: 11/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Skeletal elements have a diverse range of shapes and sizes specialized to their various roles including protecting internal organs, locomotion, feeding, hearing, and vocalization. The precise positioning, size, and shape of skeletal elements is therefore critical for their function. During embryonic development, bone forms by endochondral or intramembranous ossification and can arise from the paraxial and lateral plate mesoderm or neural crest. This review describes inductive mechanisms to position and pattern bones within the developing embryo, compares and contrasts the intrinsic vs extrinsic mechanisms of endochondral and intramembranous skeletal development, and details known cellular processes that precisely determine skeletal shape and size. Key cellular mechanisms are employed at distinct stages of ossification, many of which occur in response to mechanical cues (eg, joint formation) or preempting future load‐bearing requirements. Rapid shape changes occur during cellular condensation and template establishment. Specialized cellular behaviors, such as chondrocyte hypertrophy in endochondral bone and secondary cartilage on intramembranous bones, also dramatically change template shape. Once ossification is complete, bone shape undergoes functional adaptation through (re)modeling. We also highlight how alterations in these cellular processes contribute to evolutionary change and how differences in the embryonic origin of bones can influence postnatal bone repair. Compares and contrasts Endochondral and intramembranous bone development Reviews embryonic origins of different bones Describes the cellular and molecular mechanisms of positioning skeletal elements. Describes mechanisms of skeletal growth with a focus on the generation of skeletal shape
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriel L Galea
- Developmental Biology and Cancer, UCL GOS Institute of Child Health, London, UK.,Comparative Bioveterinary Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, London, UK
| | - Mohamed R Zein
- Centre for Craniofacial and Regenerative Biology, Faculty of Dentistry, Oral and Craniofacial Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Steven Allen
- Comparative Bioveterinary Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, London, UK
| | - Philippa Francis-West
- Centre for Craniofacial and Regenerative Biology, Faculty of Dentistry, Oral and Craniofacial Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
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15
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Samuels BD, Aho R, Brinkley JF, Bugacov A, Feingold E, Fisher S, Gonzalez-Reiche AS, Hacia JG, Hallgrimsson B, Hansen K, Harris MP, Ho TV, Holmes G, Hooper JE, Jabs EW, Jones KL, Kesselman C, Klein OD, Leslie EJ, Li H, Liao EC, Long H, Lu N, Maas RL, Marazita ML, Mohammed J, Prescott S, Schuler R, Selleri L, Spritz RA, Swigut T, van Bakel H, Visel A, Welsh I, Williams C, Williams TJ, Wysocka J, Yuan Y, Chai Y. FaceBase 3: analytical tools and FAIR resources for craniofacial and dental research. Development 2020; 147:dev191213. [PMID: 32958507 PMCID: PMC7522026 DOI: 10.1242/dev.191213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2020] [Accepted: 08/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The FaceBase Consortium was established by the National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research in 2009 as a 'big data' resource for the craniofacial research community. Over the past decade, researchers have deposited hundreds of annotated and curated datasets on both normal and disordered craniofacial development in FaceBase, all freely available to the research community on the FaceBase Hub website. The Hub has developed numerous visualization and analysis tools designed to promote integration of multidisciplinary data while remaining dedicated to the FAIR principles of data management (findability, accessibility, interoperability and reusability) and providing a faceted search infrastructure for locating desired data efficiently. Summaries of the datasets generated by the FaceBase projects from 2014 to 2019 are provided here. FaceBase 3 now welcomes contributions of data on craniofacial and dental development in humans, model organisms and cell lines. Collectively, the FaceBase Consortium, along with other NIH-supported data resources, provide a continuously growing, dynamic and current resource for the scientific community while improving data reproducibility and fulfilling data sharing requirements.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bridget D Samuels
- Center for Craniofacial Molecular Biology, Herman Ostrow School of Dentistry, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
| | - Robert Aho
- Program in Craniofacial Biology, Departments of Orofacial Sciences and of Anatomy, Institute of Human Genetics, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
| | - James F Brinkley
- Structural Informatics Group, Department of Biological Structure, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Alejandro Bugacov
- Information Sciences Institute, Viterbi School of Engineering, University of Southern California, Marina del Rey, CA 90292, USA
| | - Eleanor Feingold
- Department of Human Genetics, Graduate School of Public Health, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15219, USA
| | - Shannon Fisher
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA 02118, USA
| | - Ana S Gonzalez-Reiche
- Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA
| | - Joseph G Hacia
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
| | - Benedikt Hallgrimsson
- Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy, Alberta Children's Hospital Research Institute, and McCaig Bone and Joint Institute, University of Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Karissa Hansen
- Program in Craniofacial Biology, Departments of Orofacial Sciences and of Anatomy, Institute of Human Genetics, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
| | - Matthew P Harris
- Department of Orthopedic Research, Boston Children's Hospital and Department of Genetics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Thach-Vu Ho
- Center for Craniofacial Molecular Biology, Herman Ostrow School of Dentistry, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
| | - Greg Holmes
- Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA
| | - Joan E Hooper
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, School of Medicine, University of Colorado, Aurora, CO 80045, USA
| | - Ethylin Wang Jabs
- Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA
| | - Kenneth L Jones
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, School of Medicine, University of Colorado, Aurora, CO 80045, USA
| | - Carl Kesselman
- Information Sciences Institute, Viterbi School of Engineering, University of Southern California, Marina del Rey, CA 90292, USA
| | - Ophir D Klein
- Program in Craniofacial Biology, Departments of Orofacial Sciences and Pediatrics, Institute for Human Genetics, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
| | | | - Hong Li
- Department of Craniofacial Biology, School of Dental Medicine, University of Colorado, Aurora, CO 80045, USA
| | - Eric C Liao
- Massachusetts General Hospital, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - Hannah Long
- Departments of Chemical and Systems Biology and of Developmental Biology, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, School of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Na Lu
- Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA
| | - Richard L Maas
- Division of Genetics, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Mary L Marazita
- Department of Human Genetics, Graduate School of Public Health, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15219, USA
- Center for Craniofacial and Dental Genetics, Department of Oral Biology, School of Dental Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15219, USA
- Clinical and Translational Science, School of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15219, USA
| | - Jaaved Mohammed
- Departments of Chemical and Systems Biology and of Developmental Biology, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, School of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Sara Prescott
- Departments of Chemical and Systems Biology and of Developmental Biology, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, School of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Robert Schuler
- Information Sciences Institute, Viterbi School of Engineering, University of Southern California, Marina del Rey, CA 90292, USA
| | - Licia Selleri
- Program in Craniofacial Biology, Departments of Orofacial Sciences and of Anatomy, Institute of Human Genetics, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
| | - Richard A Spritz
- Human Medical Genetics and Genomics Program, School of Medicine, University of Colorado, Aurora, CO 80045, USA
| | - Tomek Swigut
- Departments of Chemical and Systems Biology and of Developmental Biology, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, School of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Harm van Bakel
- Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA
| | - Axel Visel
- Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
- U.S. Department of Energy Joint Genome Institute, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
- School of Natural Sciences, University of California Merced, Merced, CA 95343, USA
| | - Ian Welsh
- Program in Craniofacial Biology, Departments of Orofacial Sciences and of Anatomy, Institute of Human Genetics, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
| | - Cristina Williams
- Information Sciences Institute, Viterbi School of Engineering, University of Southern California, Marina del Rey, CA 90292, USA
| | - Trevor J Williams
- Department of Craniofacial Biology, School of Dental Medicine, University of Colorado, Aurora, CO 80045, USA
| | - Joanna Wysocka
- Departments of Chemical and Systems Biology and of Developmental Biology, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, School of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Yuan Yuan
- Center for Craniofacial Molecular Biology, Herman Ostrow School of Dentistry, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
| | - Yang Chai
- Center for Craniofacial Molecular Biology, Herman Ostrow School of Dentistry, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
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16
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Dambroise E, Ktorza I, Brombin A, Abdessalem G, Edouard J, Luka M, Fiedler I, Binder O, Pelle O, Patton EE, Busse B, Menager M, Sohm F, Legeai-Mallet L. Fgfr3 Is a Positive Regulator of Osteoblast Expansion and Differentiation During Zebrafish Skull Vault Development. J Bone Miner Res 2020; 35:1782-1797. [PMID: 32379366 DOI: 10.1002/jbmr.4042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2020] [Revised: 04/09/2020] [Accepted: 04/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Gain or loss-of-function mutations in fibroblast growth factor receptor 3 (FGFR3) result in cranial vault defects highlighting the protein's role in membranous ossification. Zebrafish express high levels of fgfr3 during skull development; in order to study FGFR3's role in cranial vault development, we generated the first fgfr3 loss-of-function zebrafish (fgfr3lof/lof ). The mutant fish exhibited major changes in the craniofacial skeleton, with a lack of sutures, abnormal frontal and parietal bones, and the presence of ectopic bones. Integrated analyses (in vivo imaging and single-cell RNA sequencing of the osteoblast lineage) of zebrafish fgfr3lof/lof revealed a delay in osteoblast expansion and differentiation, together with changes in the extracellular matrix. These findings demonstrate that fgfr3 is a positive regulator of osteogenesis. We conclude that changes in the extracellular matrix within growing bone might impair cell-cell communication, mineralization, and new osteoblast recruitment. © 2020 American Society for Bone and Mineral Research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emilie Dambroise
- Laboratory of Molecular and Physiopathological Bases of Osteochondrodysplasia, INSERM UMR 1163, Université de Paris, Imagine Institute, Paris, France
| | - Ivan Ktorza
- Laboratory of Molecular and Physiopathological Bases of Osteochondrodysplasia, INSERM UMR 1163, Université de Paris, Imagine Institute, Paris, France
| | - Alessandro Brombin
- MRC Human Genetics Unit, MRC Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK.,Cancer Research UK Edinburgh Centre, MRC Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Ghaith Abdessalem
- Laboratory of Inflammatory Responses and Transcriptomic Networks in Diseases, INSERM UMR 1163, Université de Paris, Imagine Institute, Paris, France
| | - Joanne Edouard
- UMS AMAGEN, CNRS, INRA, Université Paris-Saclay, Gif-sur-Yvette, France.,Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC)-CNRS, Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Marine Luka
- Laboratory of Inflammatory Responses and Transcriptomic Networks in Diseases, INSERM UMR 1163, Université de Paris, Imagine Institute, Paris, France
| | - Imke Fiedler
- Department of Osteology and Biomechanics, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Olivia Binder
- Laboratory of Molecular and Physiopathological Bases of Osteochondrodysplasia, INSERM UMR 1163, Université de Paris, Imagine Institute, Paris, France
| | - Olivier Pelle
- Flow Cytometry Core Facility, Structure Fédérative de Recherche Necker, INSERM US24/CNRS UMS3633, Paris, France
| | - E Elizabeth Patton
- MRC Human Genetics Unit, MRC Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK.,Cancer Research UK Edinburgh Centre, MRC Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Björn Busse
- Department of Osteology and Biomechanics, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Mickaël Menager
- Laboratory of Inflammatory Responses and Transcriptomic Networks in Diseases, INSERM UMR 1163, Université de Paris, Imagine Institute, Paris, France
| | - Frederic Sohm
- UMS AMAGEN, CNRS, INRA, Université Paris-Saclay, Gif-sur-Yvette, France.,Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC)-CNRS, Gif-sur-Yvette, France.,Department of Osteology and Biomechanics, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany.,Flow Cytometry Core Facility, Structure Fédérative de Recherche Necker, INSERM US24/CNRS UMS3633, Paris, France.,Functional Genomics Institute of Lyon, University of Lyon, CNRS, INRA, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Lyon, France
| | - Laurence Legeai-Mallet
- Laboratory of Molecular and Physiopathological Bases of Osteochondrodysplasia, INSERM UMR 1163, Université de Paris, Imagine Institute, Paris, France
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