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Araujo LH, Bueno Chagas TA, Reis T, de Morais Borba JRB, Trujilho MNR, Dalzoto LDAM, Marcondes MF, Juliano MA, Júdice WADS, Veloso MP, Machado MFM. Oximic compounds as potential inhibitors of metacaspase-2 (TbMCA2) of Trypanosoma brucei. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2024; 735:150657. [PMID: 39265363 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2024.150657] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2024] [Revised: 08/20/2024] [Accepted: 09/03/2024] [Indexed: 09/14/2024]
Abstract
Metacaspases are a distinct class of cysteine proteases predominantly found in plants, fungi, and protozoa, crucial for regulating programmed cell death (PCD). They possess unique structural features and differ markedly from caspases in their activation mechanisms and substrate specificities, with a notable preference for binding basic residues in substrates. In this study, we introduced vanillin-derived oximic compounds to explore their pharmaceutical potential. We evaluated these compounds for their inhibitory effects on TbMCA2, a metacaspase in Trypanosoma brucei, identifying AO-7, AO-12, and EO-20 as promising inhibitors. AO-12 showed significant potential as a non-competitive inhibitor with notable IC50 values. Molecular docking studies were also conducted to evaluate the binding affinity of these compounds for TbMCA2. This research is particularly relevant given the urgent need for more effective and less toxic treatments for trypanosomiasis, a parasitic disease caused by trypanosomes. The absence of available vaccines and the limitations imposed by drug toxicity underscore the importance of these findings. Our study represents a significant advancement in developing therapeutic agents targeting metacaspases in trypanosomatids and highlights the necessity of understanding metacaspase regulation across various species. It provides valuable insights into inhibitor sensitivity and potential species-specific therapeutic strategies. In conclusion, this research opens promising avenues for novel therapeutic agents targeting metacaspases in trypanosomatids, addressing a critical gap in combating neglected diseases associated with these pathogens. Further research is essential to refine the efficacy and safety profiles of these compounds, aiming to deliver more accessible and effective therapeutic solutions to populations afflicted by these debilitating diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Helena Araujo
- Interdisciplinary Center for Biochemical Research, University of Mogi das Cruzes, Av Dr. Cândido Xavier de Almeida e Souza, 200, 08780-991, Mogi das Cruzes, Brazil
| | - Thaynan Aparecida Bueno Chagas
- Pharmaceutical Science Department, Alfenas Federal University, Rua Gabriel Monteiro da Silva, 700, 37130-001, Alfenas, Brazil
| | - Taiz Reis
- Interdisciplinary Center for Biochemical Research, University of Mogi das Cruzes, Av Dr. Cândido Xavier de Almeida e Souza, 200, 08780-991, Mogi das Cruzes, Brazil
| | | | - Mariana Nascimento Romero Trujilho
- Interdisciplinary Center for Biochemical Research, University of Mogi das Cruzes, Av Dr. Cândido Xavier de Almeida e Souza, 200, 08780-991, Mogi das Cruzes, Brazil
| | - Laura de Azevedo Maffeis Dalzoto
- Interdisciplinary Center for Biochemical Research, University of Mogi das Cruzes, Av Dr. Cândido Xavier de Almeida e Souza, 200, 08780-991, Mogi das Cruzes, Brazil
| | - Marcelo Ferreira Marcondes
- Department of Biophysics, São Paulo Federal University, Rua Pedro de Toledo, 669, 7° floor, 04039-032, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Maria Aparecida Juliano
- Department of Biophysics, São Paulo Federal University, Rua Pedro de Toledo, 669, 7° floor, 04039-032, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Wagner Alves de Souza Júdice
- Interdisciplinary Center for Biochemical Research, University of Mogi das Cruzes, Av Dr. Cândido Xavier de Almeida e Souza, 200, 08780-991, Mogi das Cruzes, Brazil
| | - Márcia Paranho Veloso
- Pharmaceutical Science Department, Alfenas Federal University, Rua Gabriel Monteiro da Silva, 700, 37130-001, Alfenas, Brazil
| | - Maurício Ferreira Marcondes Machado
- Interdisciplinary Center for Biochemical Research, University of Mogi das Cruzes, Av Dr. Cândido Xavier de Almeida e Souza, 200, 08780-991, Mogi das Cruzes, Brazil.
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Mendes IC, Dos Reis Bertoldo W, Miranda-Junior AS, Assis AVD, Repolês BM, Ferreira WRR, Chame DF, Souza DDL, Pavani RS, Macedo AM, Franco GR, Serra E, Perdomo V, Menck CFM, da Silva Leandro G, Fragoso SP, Barbosa Elias MCQ, Machado CR. DNA lesions that block transcription induce the death of Trypanosoma cruzi via ATR activation, which is dependent on the presence of R-loops. DNA Repair (Amst) 2024; 141:103726. [PMID: 39096697 DOI: 10.1016/j.dnarep.2024.103726] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2023] [Revised: 06/25/2024] [Accepted: 07/07/2024] [Indexed: 08/05/2024]
Abstract
Trypanosoma cruzi is the etiological agent of Chagas disease and a peculiar eukaryote with unique biological characteristics. DNA damage can block RNA polymerase, activating transcription-coupled nucleotide excision repair (TC-NER), a DNA repair pathway specialized in lesions that compromise transcription. If transcriptional stress is unresolved, arrested RNA polymerase can activate programmed cell death. Nonetheless, how this parasite modulates these processes is unknown. Here, we demonstrate that T. cruzi cell death after UV irradiation, a genotoxic agent that generates lesions resolved by TC-NER, depends on active transcription and is signaled mainly by an apoptotic-like pathway. Pre-treated parasites with α-amanitin, a selective RNA polymerase II inhibitor, become resistant to such cell death. Similarly, the gamma pre-irradiated cells are more resistant to UV when the transcription processes are absent. The Cockayne Syndrome B protein (CSB) recognizes blocked RNA polymerase and can initiate TC-NER. Curiously, CSB overexpression increases parasites' cell death shortly after UV exposure. On the other hand, at the same time after irradiation, the single-knockout CSB cells show resistance to the same treatment. UV-induced fast death is signalized by the exposition of phosphatidylserine to the outer layer of the membrane, indicating a cell death mainly by an apoptotic-like pathway. Furthermore, such death is suppressed in WT parasites pre-treated with inhibitors of ataxia telangiectasia and Rad3-related (ATR), a key DDR kinase. Signaling for UV radiation death may be related to R-loops since the overexpression of genes associated with the resolution of these structures suppress it. Together, results suggest that transcription blockage triggered by UV radiation activates an ATR-dependent apoptosis-like mechanism in T. cruzi, with the participation of CSB protein in this process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabela Cecilia Mendes
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Imunologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas (ICB), Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG 30161-970, Brazil
| | - Willian Dos Reis Bertoldo
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Imunologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas (ICB), Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG 30161-970, Brazil
| | - Adalberto Sales Miranda-Junior
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Imunologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas (ICB), Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG 30161-970, Brazil
| | - Antônio Vinícius de Assis
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Imunologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas (ICB), Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG 30161-970, Brazil
| | - Bruno Marçal Repolês
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Imunologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas (ICB), Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG 30161-970, Brazil
| | - Wesley Roger Rodrigues Ferreira
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Imunologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas (ICB), Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG 30161-970, Brazil
| | - Daniela Ferreira Chame
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Imunologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas (ICB), Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG 30161-970, Brazil
| | - Daniela De Laet Souza
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Imunologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas (ICB), Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG 30161-970, Brazil
| | - Raphael Souza Pavani
- Laboratório Especial de Ciclo Celular, Instituto Butantan, São Paulo, MG, São Paulo, SP 05503-900, Brazil
| | - Andrea Mara Macedo
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Imunologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas (ICB), Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG 30161-970, Brazil
| | - Glória Regina Franco
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Imunologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas (ICB), Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG 30161-970, Brazil
| | - Esteban Serra
- Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Rosario, CONICET, 2000 Rosario, Santa Fe, Argentina; Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas, Universidad Nacional de Rosario, 2000 Rosario, Santa Fe, Argentina
| | - Virginia Perdomo
- Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas, Universidad Nacional de Rosario, 2000 Rosario, Santa Fe, Argentina
| | - Carlos Frederico Martins Menck
- Departamento de Microbiologia, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas (ICB), Universidade de São Paulo (USP), São Paulo, SP 05508-900, Brazil
| | - Giovana da Silva Leandro
- Departamento de Microbiologia, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas (ICB), Universidade de São Paulo (USP), São Paulo, SP 05508-900, Brazil
| | | | | | - Carlos Renato Machado
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Imunologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas (ICB), Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG 30161-970, Brazil.
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Tiwari S, Kumar R, Devi S, Sharma P, Chaudhary NR, Negi S, Tandel N, Marepally S, Pied S, Tyagi RK. Biogenically synthesized green silver nanoparticles exhibit antimalarial activity. DISCOVER NANO 2024; 19:136. [PMID: 39217276 PMCID: PMC11365884 DOI: 10.1186/s11671-024-04098-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2024] [Accepted: 08/27/2024] [Indexed: 09/04/2024]
Abstract
The suboptimal efficacies of existing anti-malarial drugs attributed to the emergence of drug resistance dampen the clinical outcomes. Hence, there is a need for developing novel drug and drug targets. Recently silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) constructed with the leaf extracts of Euphorbia cotinifolia were shown to possess antimalarial activity. Therefore, the synthesized AgNPs from Euphorbia cotinifolia (EcAgNPs) were tested for their parasite clearance activity. We determined the antimalarial activity in the asexual blood stage infection of 3D7 (laboratory strain) P. falciparum. EcAgNPs demonstrated the significant inhibition of parasite growth (EC50 of 0.75 µg/ml) in the routine in vitro culture of P. falciparum. The synthesized silver nanoparticles were seen to induce apoptosis in P. falciparum through increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) ROS production and activated programmed cell death pathways characterized by the caspase-3 and calpain activity. Also, altered transcriptional regulation of Bax/Bcl-2 ratio indicated the enhanced apoptosis. Moreover, inhibited expression of PfLPL-1 by EcAgNPs is suggestive of the dysregulated host fatty acid flux via parasite lipid storage. Overall, our findings suggest that EcAgNPs are a non-toxic and targeted antimalarial treatment, and could be a promising therapeutic approach for clearing malaria infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Savitri Tiwari
- School of Biological and Life Sciences, Galgotias University, Gautam Buddha Nagar, Greater Noida, 201310, India
| | - Reetesh Kumar
- Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, Institute of Applied Sciences and Humanities, GLA University, Mathura, 281406, India
| | - Sonia Devi
- Biomedical Parasitology and Translational-Immunology Lab, Division of Cell Biology and Immunology, CSIR-Institute of Microbial Technology (IMTECH), Sec-39A, Chandigarh, 160036, India
- Academy of Scientific and Innovation Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, 201002, India
| | - Prakriti Sharma
- Biomedical Parasitology and Translational-Immunology Lab, Division of Cell Biology and Immunology, CSIR-Institute of Microbial Technology (IMTECH), Sec-39A, Chandigarh, 160036, India
| | - Neil Roy Chaudhary
- Biomedical Parasitology and Translational-Immunology Lab, Division of Cell Biology and Immunology, CSIR-Institute of Microbial Technology (IMTECH), Sec-39A, Chandigarh, 160036, India
| | - Sushmita Negi
- Biomedical Parasitology and Translational-Immunology Lab, Division of Cell Biology and Immunology, CSIR-Institute of Microbial Technology (IMTECH), Sec-39A, Chandigarh, 160036, India
- Academy of Scientific and Innovation Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, 201002, India
| | - Nikunj Tandel
- Institute of Science, Nirma University, Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India
- Malaria Research Lab, CSIR-Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology (CCMB), Habsiguda, Hyderabad, Telangana, 500007, India
| | - Srujan Marepally
- Centre for Stem Cell Research (a Unit of inStem, Bengaluru), Christian Medical College Campus, Bagayam, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, 632002, India
| | - Sylviane Pied
- Centre for Stem Cell Research (a Unit of inStem, Bengaluru), Christian Medical College Campus, Bagayam, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, 632002, India
- CNRS UMR 9017-INSERM U1019, Center for Infection and Immunity of Lille-9 CIIL, Institut Pasteur de Lille, University of Lille, 59019, Lille, France
| | - Rajeev K Tyagi
- Biomedical Parasitology and Translational-Immunology Lab, Division of Cell Biology and Immunology, CSIR-Institute of Microbial Technology (IMTECH), Sec-39A, Chandigarh, 160036, India.
- Academy of Scientific and Innovation Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, 201002, India.
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Boonhok R, Sangkanu S, Phumjan S, Jongboonjua R, Sangnopparat N, Kwankaew P, Tedasen A, Lim CL, Pereira MDL, Rahmatullah M, Wilairatana P, Wiart C, Dolma KG, Paul AK, Gupta M, Nissapatorn V. Curcumin effect on Acanthamoeba triangularis encystation under nutrient starvation. PeerJ 2022; 10:e13657. [PMID: 35811814 PMCID: PMC9261923 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.13657] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2022] [Accepted: 06/09/2022] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Curcumin is an active compound derived from turmeric, Curcuma longa, and is known for its benefits to human health. The amoebicidal activity of curcumin against Acanthamoeba triangularis was recently discovered. However, a physiological change of intracellular pathways related to A. triangularis encystation mechanism, including autophagy in the surviving amoeba after curcumin treatment, has never been reported. This study aims to investigate the effect of curcumin on the survival of A. triangularis under nutrient starvation and nutrient-rich condition, as well as to evaluate the A. triangularis encystation and a physiological change of Acanthamoeba autophagy at the mRNA level. Methods In this study, A. triangularis amoebas were treated with a sublethal dose of curcumin under nutrient starvation and nutrient-rich condition and the surviving amoebas was investigated. Cysts formation and vacuolization were examined by microscopy and transcriptional expression of autophagy-related genes and other encystation-related genes were evaluated by real-time PCR. Results A. triangularis cysts were formed under nutrient starvation. However, in the presence of the autophagy inhibitor, 3-methyladenine (3-MA), the percentage of cysts was significantly reduced. Interestingly, in the presence of curcumin, most of the parasites remained in the trophozoite stage in both the starvation and nutrient-rich condition. In vacuolization analysis, the percentage of amoebas with enlarged vacuole was increased upon starvation. However, the percentage was significantly declined in the presence of curcumin and 3-MA. Molecular analysis of A. triangularis autophagy-related (ATG) genes showed that the mRNA expression of the ATG genes, ATG3, ATG8b, ATG12, ATG16, under the starvation with curcumin was at a basal level along the treatment. The results were similar to those of the curcumin-treated amoebas under a nutrient-rich condition, except AcATG16 which increased later. On the other hand, mRNA expression of encystation-related genes, cellulose synthase and serine proteinase, remained unchanged during the first 18 h, but significantly increased at 24 h post treatment. Conclusion Curcumin inhibits cyst formation in surviving trophozoites, which may result from its effect on mRNA expression of key Acanthamoeba ATG-related genes. However, further investigation into the mechanism of curcumin in A. triangularis trophozoites arrest and its association with autophagy or other encystation-related pathways is needed to support the future use of curcumin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachasak Boonhok
- Department of Medical Technology, School of Allied Health Sciences, and Research Excellence Center for Innovation and Health Products (RECIHP), Walailak University, Thai Buri, Nakhon Si Thammarat, Thailand
| | - Suthinee Sangkanu
- School of Allied Health Sciences, Southeast Asia Water Team (SEA Water Team) and World Union for Herbal Drug Discovery (WUHeDD), and Research Excellence Center for Innovation and Health Products (RECIHP), Walailak University, Thai Buri, Nakhon Si Thammarat, Thailand
| | - Suganya Phumjan
- Department of Medical Technology, School of Allied Health Sciences, and Research Excellence Center for Innovation and Health Products (RECIHP), Walailak University, Thai Buri, Nakhon Si Thammarat, Thailand
| | - Ramita Jongboonjua
- Department of Medical Technology, School of Allied Health Sciences, and Research Excellence Center for Innovation and Health Products (RECIHP), Walailak University, Thai Buri, Nakhon Si Thammarat, Thailand
| | - Nawarat Sangnopparat
- Department of Medical Technology, School of Allied Health Sciences, and Research Excellence Center for Innovation and Health Products (RECIHP), Walailak University, Thai Buri, Nakhon Si Thammarat, Thailand
| | - Pattamaporn Kwankaew
- Department of Medical Technology, School of Allied Health Sciences, and Research Excellence Center for Innovation and Health Products (RECIHP), Walailak University, Thai Buri, Nakhon Si Thammarat, Thailand
| | - Aman Tedasen
- Department of Medical Technology, School of Allied Health Sciences, and Research Excellence Center for Innovation and Health Products (RECIHP), Walailak University, Thai Buri, Nakhon Si Thammarat, Thailand
| | - Chooi Ling Lim
- Division of Applied Biomedical Science and Biotechnology, School of Health Sciences, International Medical University, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Maria de Lourdes Pereira
- CICECO-Aveiro Institute of Materials and Department of Medical Sciences, University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal
| | - Mohammed Rahmatullah
- Department of Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering, University of Development Alternative, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Polrat Wilairatana
- Department of Clinical Tropical Medicine, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Rachathewee, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Christophe Wiart
- The Institute for Tropical Biology and Conservation, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia
| | - Karma G. Dolma
- Department of Microbiology, Sikkim Manipal Institute of Medical Sciences, Sikkim, India
| | - Alok K. Paul
- School of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania, Australia
| | - Madhu Gupta
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Delhi Pharmaceutical Sciences and Research University, New Delhi, India
| | - Veeranoot Nissapatorn
- School of Allied Health Sciences, Southeast Asia Water Team (SEA Water Team) and World Union for Herbal Drug Discovery (WUHeDD), and Research Excellence Center for Innovation and Health Products (RECIHP), Walailak University, Thai Buri, Nakhon Si Thammarat, Thailand
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Docampo R, Vercesi AE. Mitochondrial Ca 2+ and Reactive Oxygen Species in Trypanosomatids. Antioxid Redox Signal 2022; 36:969-983. [PMID: 34218689 PMCID: PMC9125514 DOI: 10.1089/ars.2021.0058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2021] [Revised: 05/31/2021] [Accepted: 06/22/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Significance: Millions of people are infected with trypanosomatids and new therapeutic approaches are needed. Trypanosomatids possess one mitochondrion per cell and its study has led to discoveries of general biological interest. These mitochondria, as in their animal counterparts, generate reactive oxygen species (ROS) and have evolved enzymatic and nonenzymatic defenses against them. Mitochondrial calcium ion (Ca2+) overload leads to generation of ROS and its study could lead to relevant information on the biology of trypanosomatids and to novel drug targets. Recent Advances: Mitochondrial Ca2+ is normally involved in maintaining the bioenergetics of trypanosomes, but when Ca2+ overload occurs, it is associated with cell death. Trypanosomes lack key players in the mechanism of cell death described in mammalian cells, although mitochondrial Ca2+ overload results in collapse of their membrane potential, production of ROS, and cytochrome c release. They are also very resistant to mitochondrial permeability transition, and cell death after mitochondrial Ca2+ overload depends on generation of ROS. Critical Issues: In this review, we consider the mechanisms of mitochondrial oxidant generation and removal and the involvement of Ca2+ in trypanosome cell death. Future Directions: More studies are required to determine the reactions involved in generation of ROS by the mitochondria of trypanosomatids, their enzymatic and nonenzymatic defenses against ROS, and the occurrence and composition of a mitochondrial permeability transition pore. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 36, 969-983.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roberto Docampo
- Center for Tropical and Emerging Global Diseases, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA
- Department of Cellular Biology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA
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Ramu D, Singh S. Potential molecular targets of Leishmania pathways in developing novel antileishmanials. Future Microbiol 2021; 17:41-57. [PMID: 34877877 DOI: 10.2217/fmb-2021-0094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The illness known as leishmaniasis has not become a household name like malaria, although it stands as the second-largest parasitic disease, surpassed only by malaria. As no licensed vaccine is available, treatment for leishmaniasis mostly relies on chemotherapy. Inefficiency and drug resistance are the major impediments in current therapeutics. In this scenario, identification of novel molecular drug candidates is indispensable to develop robust antileishmanials. The exploration of structure-based drugs to target enzymes/molecules of Leishmania which differ structurally/functionally from their equivalents in mammalian hosts not only helps in developing a new class of antileishmanials, but also paves the way to understand Leishmania biology. This review provides a comprehensive overview on possible drug candidates relating to various Leishmania molecular pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dandugudumula Ramu
- Department of Life Sciences, School of Natural Sciences, Shiv Nadar University, Greater Noida, 201314, India
| | - Shailja Singh
- Special Centre for Molecular Medicine, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, 110067, India
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Refolding of metacaspase 5 from Trypanosoma cruzi, structural characterization and the influence of c-terminal in protein recombinant production. Protein Expr Purif 2021; 191:106007. [PMID: 34728367 DOI: 10.1016/j.pep.2021.106007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2021] [Revised: 10/07/2021] [Accepted: 10/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Metacaspases are known to have a fundamental role in apoptosis-like, a programmed cellular death (PCD) in plants, fungi, and protozoans. The last includes several parasites that cause diseases of great interest to public health, mostly without adequate treatment and included in the neglected tropical diseases category. One of them is Trypanosoma cruzi which causes Chagas disease and has two metacaspases involved in its PCD: TcMCA3 and TcMCA5. Their roles seemed different in PCD, TcMCA5 appears as a proapoptotic protein negatively regulated by its C-terminal sequence, while TcMCA3 is described as a cell cycle regulator. Despite this, the precise role of TcMCA3 and TcMCA5 and their atomic structures remain elusive. Therefore, developing methodologies to allow investigations of those metacaspases is relevant. Herein, we produced full-length and truncated versions of TcMCA5 and applied different strategies for their folded recombinant production from E. coli inclusion bodies. Biophysical assays probed the efficacy of the production method in providing a high yield of folded recombinant TcMCA5. Moreover, we modeled the TcMCA5 protein structure using experimental restraints obtained by XLMS. The experimental design for novel methods and the final protocol provided here can guide studies with other metacaspases. The production of TcMCA5 allows further investigations as protein crystallography, HTS drug discovery to create potential therapeutic in the treatment of Chagas' disease and in the way to clarify how the PCD works in the parasite.
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Cysteine proteases as potential targets for anti-trypanosomatid drug discovery. Bioorg Med Chem 2021; 46:116365. [PMID: 34419821 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2021.116365] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2021] [Revised: 08/02/2021] [Accepted: 08/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Leishmaniasis and trypanosomiasis are endemic neglected disease in South America and Africa and considered a significant public health problem, mainly in poor communities. The limitations of the current available therapeutic options, including the lack of specificity, relatively high toxicity, and the drug resistance acquiring, drive the constant search for new targets and therapeutic options. Advances in knowledge of parasite biology have revealed essential enzymes involved in the replication, survival, and pathogenicity of Leishmania and Trypanosoma species. In this scenario, cysteine proteases have drawn the attention of researchers and they are being proposed as promising targets for drug discovery of antiprotozoal drugs. In this systematic review, we will provide an update on drug discovery strategies targeting the cysteine proteases as potential targets for chemotherapy against protozoal neglected diseases.
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Screening and Identification of Metacaspase Inhibitors: Evaluation of Inhibition Mechanism and Trypanocidal Activity. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2021; 65:AAC.01330-20. [PMID: 33318019 DOI: 10.1128/aac.01330-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2020] [Accepted: 12/07/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
A common strategy to identify new antiparasitic agents is the targeting of proteases, due to their essential contributions to parasite growth and development. Metacaspases (MCAs) are cysteine proteases present in fungi, protozoa, and plants. These enzymes, which are associated with crucial cellular events in trypanosomes, are absent in the human host, thus arising as attractive drug targets. To find new MCA inhibitors with trypanocidal activity, we adapted a continuous fluorescence enzymatic assay to a medium-throughput format and carried out screening of different compound collections, followed by the construction of dose-response curves for the most promising hits. We used MCA5 from Trypanosoma brucei (TbMCA5) as a model for the identification of inhibitors from the GlaxoSmithKline HAT and CHAGAS chemical boxes. We also assessed a third collection of nine compounds from the Maybridge database that had been identified by virtual screening as potential inhibitors of the cysteine peptidase falcipain-2 (clan CA) from Plasmodium falciparum Compound HTS01959 (from the Maybridge collection) was the most potent inhibitor, with a 50% inhibitory concentration (IC50) of 14.39 µM; it also inhibited other MCAs from T. brucei and Trypanosoma cruzi (TbMCA2, 4.14 µM; TbMCA3, 5.04 µM; TcMCA5, 151 µM). HTS01959 behaved as a reversible, slow-binding, and noncompetitive inhibitor of TbMCA2, with a mechanism of action that included redox components. Importantly, HTS01959 displayed trypanocidal activity against bloodstream forms of T. brucei and trypomastigote forms of T. cruzi, without cytotoxic effects on Vero cells. Thus, HTS01959 is a promising starting point to develop more specific and potent chemical structures to target MCAs.
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Ndhlovu A, Durand PM, Ramsey G. Programmed cell death as a black queen in microbial communities. Mol Ecol 2020; 30:1110-1119. [PMID: 33253458 DOI: 10.1111/mec.15757] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2020] [Accepted: 11/25/2020] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Programmed cell death (PCD) in unicellular organisms is in some instances an altruistic trait. When the beneficiaries are clones or close kin, kin selection theory may be used to explain the evolution of the trait, and when the trait evolves in groups of distantly related individuals, group or multilevel selection theory is invoked. In mixed microbial communities, the benefits are also available to unrelated taxa. But the evolutionary ecology of PCD in communities is poorly understood. Few hypotheses have been offered concerning the community role of PCD despite its far-reaching effects. The hypothesis we consider here is that PCD is a black queen. The Black Queen Hypothesis (BQH) outlines how public goods arising from a leaky function are exploited by other taxa in the community. Black Queen (BQ) traits are essential for community survival, but only some members bear the cost of possessing them, while others lose the trait In addition, BQ traits have been defined in terms of adaptive gene loss, and it is unknown whether this has occurred for PCD. Our conclusion is that PCD fulfils the two most important criteria of a BQ (leakiness and costliness), but that more empirical data are needed for assessing the remaining two criteria. In addition, we hold that for viewing PCD as a BQ, the original BQH needs to include social traits. Thus, despite some empirical and conceptual shortcomings, the BQH provides a helpful avenue for investigating PCD in microbial communities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Ndhlovu
- Evolutionary Genomics Group, Department of Botany and Zoology, University of Stellenbosch, Stellenbosch, South Africa
| | - Pierre M Durand
- Evolutionary Studies Institute, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Grant Ramsey
- Institute of Philosophy, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
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de Castro Andreassa E, Santos MDMD, Wassmandorf R, Wippel HH, Carvalho PC, Fischer JDSDG, Souza TDACBD. Proteomic changes in Trypanosoma cruzi epimastigotes treated with the proapoptotic compound PAC-1. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-PROTEINS AND PROTEOMICS 2020; 1869:140582. [PMID: 33285319 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbapap.2020.140582] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2020] [Revised: 10/23/2020] [Accepted: 11/30/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Apoptosis is a highly regulated process of cell death in metazoans. Therefore, understanding the biochemical changes associated with apoptosis-like death in Trypanosoma cruzi is key to drug development. PAC-1 was recently shown to induce apoptosis in T. cruzi; with this as motivation, we used quantitative proteomics to unveil alterations of PAC-1-treated versus untreated epimastigotes. The PAC-1 treatment reduced the abundance of putative vesicle-associated membrane protein, putative eukaryotic translation initiation factor 1 eIF1, coatomer subunit beta, putative amastin, and a putative cytoskeleton-associated protein. Apoptosis-like signaling also increases the abundance of proteins associated with actin cytoskeleton remodeling, cell polarization, apoptotic signaling, phosphorylation, methylation, ergosterol biosynthesis, vacuolar proteins associated with autophagy, and flagellum motility. We shortlist seventeen protein targets for possible use in chemotherapy for Chagas disease. Almost all differentially abundant proteins belong to a family of proteins previously associated with apoptosis in metazoans, suggesting that the apoptotic pathway's key functions have been preserved from trypanosomatids and metazoans. SIGNIFICANCE: Approximately 8 million people worldwide are infected with Trypanosoma cruzi. The treatment of Chagas disease comprises drugs with severe side effects, thus limiting their application. Thus, developing new pharmaceutical solutions is relevant, and several molecules targeting apoptosis are therapeutically efficient for parasitic, cardiac, and neurological diseases. Apoptotic processes lead to specific morphological features that have been previously observed in T. cruzi. Here, we investigate changes in epimastigotes' proteomic profile treated with the proapoptotic compound PAC-1, providing data concerning the regulation of both metabolic and cellular processes in nonmetazoan apoptotic cells. We shortlist seventeen protein target candidates for use in chemotherapy for Chagas disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emanuella de Castro Andreassa
- Structural and Computational Proteomics Laboratory, Carlos Chagas Institute, FIOCRUZ-PR, Curitiba, PR, 80320-290, Brazil
| | - Marlon Dias Mariano Dos Santos
- Structural and Computational Proteomics Laboratory, Carlos Chagas Institute, FIOCRUZ-PR, Curitiba, PR, 80320-290, Brazil
| | - Rafaela Wassmandorf
- Structural and Computational Proteomics Laboratory, Carlos Chagas Institute, FIOCRUZ-PR, Curitiba, PR, 80320-290, Brazil
| | - Helisa Helena Wippel
- Structural and Computational Proteomics Laboratory, Carlos Chagas Institute, FIOCRUZ-PR, Curitiba, PR, 80320-290, Brazil
| | - Paulo Costa Carvalho
- Structural and Computational Proteomics Laboratory, Carlos Chagas Institute, FIOCRUZ-PR, Curitiba, PR, 80320-290, Brazil
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12
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Update on relevant trypanosome peptidases: Validated targets and future challenges. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-PROTEINS AND PROTEOMICS 2020; 1869:140577. [PMID: 33271348 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbapap.2020.140577] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2020] [Revised: 11/09/2020] [Accepted: 11/24/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Trypanosoma cruzi, the agent of the American Trypanosomiasis, Chagas disease, and Trypanosoma brucei gambiense and Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense, the agents of Sleeping sickness (Human African Trypanosomiasis, HAT), as well as Trypanosoma brucei brucei, the agent of the cattle disease nagana, contain cysteine, serine, threonine, aspartyl and metallo peptidases. The most abundant among these enzymes are the cysteine proteases from the Clan CA, the Cathepsin L-like cruzipain and rhodesain, and the Cathepsin B-like enzymes, which have essential roles in the parasites and thus are potential targets for chemotherapy. In addition, several other proteases, present in one or both parasites, have been characterized, and some of them are also promising candidates for the developing of new drugs. Recently, new inhibitors, with good selectivity for the parasite proteasomes, have been described and are very promising as lead compounds for the development of new therapies for these neglected diseases. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: "Play and interplay of proteases in health and disease".
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13
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Walvekar S, Anwar A, Anwar A, Sridewi N, Khalid M, Yow YY, Khan NA. Anti-amoebic potential of azole scaffolds and nanoparticles against pathogenic Acanthamoeba. Acta Trop 2020; 211:105618. [PMID: 32628912 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2020.105618] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2020] [Revised: 07/02/2020] [Accepted: 07/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Acanthamoeba spp. are free living amoeba (FLA) which are widely distributed in nature. They are opportunistic parasites and can cause severe infections to the eye, skin and central nervous system. The advances in drug discovery and modifications in the chemotherapeutic agents have shown little improvement in morbidity and mortality rates associated with Acanthamoeba infections. The mechanism-based process of drug discovery depends on the molecular drug targets present in the signaling pathways in the genome. Synthetic libraries provide a platform for broad spectrum of activities due to their desired structural modifications. Azoles, originally a class of synthetic anti-fungal drugs, disrupt the fungal cell membrane by inhibiting the biosynthesis of ergosterol through the inhibition of cytochrome P450 dependent 14α-lanosterol, a key step of the sterol pathway. Acanthamoeba and fungi share the presence of similar sterol intermediate, as ergosterol is also the major end-product in the sterol biosynthesis in Acanthamoeba. Sterols present in the eukaryotic cell membrane are one of the most essential lipids and exhibit important structural and signaling functions. Therefore, in this review we highlight the importance of specific targeting of ergosterol present in Acanthamoebic membrane by azole compounds for amoebicidal activity. Previously, azoles have also been repurposed to report antimicrobial, antiparasitic and antibacterial properties. Moreover, by loading the azoles into nanoparticles through advanced techniques in nanotechnology, such as physical encapsulation, adsorption, or chemical conjugation, the pharmacokinetics and therapeutic index of the drugs can be significantly improved. The current review proposes an important strategy to target Acanthamoeba using synthetic libraries of azoles and their conjugated nanoparticles for the first time.
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Song X, Lin M, Li M, Yang X, Liu J, Liu Q. Toxoplasma gondii metacaspase 2 is an important factor that influences bradyzoite formation in the Pru strain. Parasitol Res 2020; 119:2287-2298. [PMID: 32468190 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-020-06722-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2020] [Accepted: 05/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii is an important zoonotic protozoan of the phylum Apicomplexa that can infect nearly all warm-blooded animals. The parasite can exist as the interconvertible tachyzoite or bradyzoite forms, leading to acute or latent infection, respectively. No drug has been reported to penetrate the cyst wall and reduce bradyzoite survival and proliferation till now. The transcriptional level of metacaspases 2 (TgMCA2) in T. gondii is significantly upregulated during the formation of bradyzoites in the Pru strain, indicating that it may play an important role in the formation of bradyzoites. To further explore the function of TgMCA2, we constructed a TgMCA2 gene-knockout variant of the Pru strain (Δmca2). Comparative analysis revealed that the proliferative capacity of Pru Δmca2 increased, while the invasion and egressing properties were not affected by the knockout. Further data shows that the tachyzoites of Δmca2 failed to induce differentiation and form bradyzoites in vitro, and the transcriptional levels of some of the bradyzoite-specific genes (such as BAG1, LDH2, and SAG4A) in Δmca2 were significantly lower compared with that in the Pru strain at the bradyzoite stage. In vivo, no cysts were detected in Δmca2-infected mice. Further determination of parasite burden in Δmca2- and Pru-infected mice brain tissue at the genetic level showed that the gene load was significantly lower than that in Pru. In summary, we confirmed that TgMCA2 contributes to the formation of bradyzoites, and could provide an important foundation for the development of attenuated vaccines for the prevention of T. gondii infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xingju Song
- National Animal Protozoa Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology of the Ministry of Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Mengyang Lin
- National Animal Protozoa Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology of the Ministry of Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Muzi Li
- National Animal Protozoa Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology of the Ministry of Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Xu Yang
- National Animal Protozoa Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
- Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology of the Ministry of Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Jing Liu
- National Animal Protozoa Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China.
- Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology of the Ministry of Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China.
| | - Qun Liu
- National Animal Protozoa Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China.
- Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology of the Ministry of Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China.
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15
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Anwar A, Siddiqui R, Khan NA. Whole Organism Model to Study Molecular Mechanisms of Differentiation and Dedifferentiation. BIOLOGY 2020; 9:E79. [PMID: 32316619 PMCID: PMC7235994 DOI: 10.3390/biology9040079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2020] [Revised: 04/14/2020] [Accepted: 04/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Cancer recurrence has remained a significant challenge, despite advances in therapeutic approaches. In part, this is due to our incomplete understanding of the biology of cancer stem cells and the underlying molecular mechanisms. The phenomenon of differentiation and dedifferentiation (phenotypic switching) is not only unique to stem cells but it is also observed in several other organisms, as well as evolutionary-related microbes. Here, we propose the use of a primitive eukaryotic unicellular organism, Acanthamoeba castellanii, as a model to study the molecular mechanisms of cellular differentiation and dedifferentiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Areeba Anwar
- Department of Biological Sciences, School of Science and Technology, Sunway University, Bandar Sunway 47500, Malaysia;
| | - Ruqaiyyah Siddiqui
- Department of Biology, Chemistry and Environmental Sciences, College of Arts and Sciences, American University of Sharjah, University City 26666, UAE;
| | - Naveed Ahmed Khan
- Department of Biology, Chemistry and Environmental Sciences, College of Arts and Sciences, American University of Sharjah, University City 26666, UAE;
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Mesías AC, Garg NJ, Zago MP. Redox Balance Keepers and Possible Cell Functions Managed by Redox Homeostasis in Trypanosoma cruzi. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2019; 9:435. [PMID: 31921709 PMCID: PMC6932984 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2019.00435] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2019] [Accepted: 12/05/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The toxicity of oxygen and nitrogen reactive species appears to be merely the tip of the iceberg in the world of redox homeostasis. Now, oxidative stress can be seen as a two-sided process; at high concentrations, it causes damage to biomolecules, and thus, trypanosomes have evolved a strong antioxidant defense system to cope with these stressors. At low concentrations, oxidants are essential for cell signaling, and in fact, the oxidants/antioxidants balance may be able to trigger different cell fates. In this comprehensive review, we discuss the current knowledge of the oxidant environment experienced by T. cruzi along the different phases of its life cycle, and the molecular tools exploited by this pathogen to deal with oxidative stress, for better or worse. Further, we discuss the possible redox-regulated processes that could be governed by this oxidative context. Most of the current research has addressed the importance of the trypanosomes' antioxidant network based on its detox activity of harmful species; however, new efforts are necessary to highlight other functions of this network and the mechanisms underlying the fine regulation of the defense machinery, as this represents a master key to hinder crucial pathogen functions. Understanding the relevance of this balance keeper program in parasite biology will give us new perspectives to delineate improved treatment strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea C Mesías
- Instituto de Patología Experimental, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET) - Universidad Nacional de Salta, Salta, Argentina
| | - Nisha J Garg
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Institute for Human Infections and Immunity, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX, United States
| | - M Paola Zago
- Instituto de Patología Experimental, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET) - Universidad Nacional de Salta, Salta, Argentina
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17
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Eyssen LEA, Coetzer THT. Expression, purification and characterisation of Trypanosoma congolense metacaspase 5 (TcoMCA5) - a potential drug target for animal African trypanosomiasis. Protein Expr Purif 2019; 164:105465. [PMID: 31377239 DOI: 10.1016/j.pep.2019.105465] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2019] [Revised: 07/31/2019] [Accepted: 07/31/2019] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
The metacaspases (MCAs) are attractive drug targets for the treatment of African trypanosomiasis as they are not found in the metazoan kingdom and their action has been implicated in cell cycle and cell death pathways in kinetoplastid parasites. Here we report the biochemical characterisation of MCA5 from T. congolense. Upon recombinant expression in E. coli, autoprocessing is evident, and MCA5 further autoprocesses when purified using nickel affinity chromatography, which we term nickel-induced over autoprocessing. When both the catalytic His and Cys residues were mutated (TcoMCA5H147A/C202G), no nickel-induced over autoprocessing was observed and was enzymatically active, suggesting the existence of a secondary catalytic Cys residue, Cys81. Immunoaffinity purification of native TcoMCA5 from the total parasite proteins was achieved using chicken anti-TcoMCA5 IgY antibodies. The full length native TcoMCA5 and the autoprocessed products of recombinant TcoMCA5H147A/C202G were shown to possess gelatinolytic activity, the first report for that of a MCA. Both the native and recombinant enzyme were calcium independent, had a preference for Arg over Lys at the P1 site and were active over a pH range between 6.5 and 9. Partial inhibition (23%) of enzymatic activity was only achieved with leupeptin and antipain. These findings are the first step in the biochemical characterisation of the single copy MCAs from animal infective trypanosomes towards the design of novel trypanocides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren E-A Eyssen
- Biochemistry, School of Life Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal (Pietermaritzburg Campus), Private Bag X01, Scottsville, 3209, South Africa
| | - Theresa H T Coetzer
- Biochemistry, School of Life Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal (Pietermaritzburg Campus), Private Bag X01, Scottsville, 3209, South Africa.
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18
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Menna-Barreto RFS. Cell death pathways in pathogenic trypanosomatids: lessons of (over)kill. Cell Death Dis 2019; 10:93. [PMID: 30700697 PMCID: PMC6353990 DOI: 10.1038/s41419-019-1370-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2018] [Revised: 12/10/2018] [Accepted: 12/13/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Especially in tropical and developing countries, the clinically relevant protozoa Trypanosoma cruzi (Chagas disease), Trypanosoma brucei (sleeping sickness) and Leishmania species (leishmaniasis) stand out and infect millions of people worldwide leading to critical social-economic implications. Low-income populations are mainly affected by these three illnesses that are neglected by the pharmaceutical industry. Current anti-trypanosomatid drugs present variable efficacy with remarkable side effects that almost lead to treatment discontinuation, justifying a continuous search for alternative compounds that interfere with essential and specific parasite pathways. In this scenario, the triggering of trypanosomatid cell death machinery emerges as a promising approach, although the exact mechanisms involved in unicellular eukaryotes are still unclear as well as the controversial biological importance of programmed cell death (PCD). In this review, the mechanisms of autophagy, apoptosis-like cell death and necrosis found in pathogenic trypanosomatids are discussed, as well as their roles in successful infection. Based on the published genomic and proteomic maps, the panel of trypanosomatid cell death molecules was constructed under different experimental conditions. The lack of PCD molecular regulators and executioners in these parasites up to now has led to cell death being classified as an unregulated process or incidental necrosis, despite all morphological evidence published. In this context, the participation of metacaspases in PCD was also not described, and these proteases play a crucial role in proliferation and differentiation processes. On the other hand, autophagic phenotype has been described in trypanosomatids under a great variety of stress conditions (drugs, starvation, among others) suggesting that this process is involved in the turnover of damaged structures in the protozoa and is not a cell death pathway. Death mechanisms of pathogenic trypanosomatids may be involved in pathogenesis, and the identification of parasite-specific regulators could represent a rational and attractive alternative target for drug development for these neglected diseases.
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de Castro E, Reus TL, de Aguiar AM, Ávila AR, de Arruda Campos Brasil de Souza T. Procaspase-activating compound-1 induces apoptosis in Trypanosoma cruzi. Apoptosis 2018; 22:1564-1577. [PMID: 29058102 DOI: 10.1007/s10495-017-1428-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Some therapeutics for parasitic, cardiac and neurological diseases activate apoptosis. Therefore, the study of apoptotic proteins in pathogenic organisms is relevant. However, the molecular mechanism of apoptosis in unicellular organisms remain elusive, despite morphological evidence of its occurrence. In Trypanosoma cruzi, the causative agent of Chagas disease, metacaspase 3 (TcMCA3), seems to have a key role in parasite apoptosis. Accordingly, this work provides data concerning TcMCA3 regulation through its interaction with procaspase-activating compound 1 (PAC-1), a procaspase 3 activator. Indeed, PAC-1 reduced T. cruzi epimastigote viability with an IC50 of 14.12 µM and induced loss of mitochondrial potential and exposure of phosphatidylserine, features of the apoptotic process. Notwithstanding, those PAC-1-inducible effects were not conserved in metacyclic trypomastigotes. Moreover, PAC-1 reduced the viability of mammalian cells with a greater IC50 (25.70 µM) compared to T. cruzi epimastigotes, indicating distinct modes of binding between caspases and metacaspases. To shed light on the selectivity of metacaspases and caspases, we determined the structural features related to the PAC-1 binding sites in both types of proteins. These data are important for improving the understanding of the apoptosis pathway in T. cruzi so that TcMCA3 could be better targeted with future pharmaceuticals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emanuella de Castro
- Laboratório de Proteômica e Engenharia de Proteínas, Instituto Carlos Chagas, Fiocruz, Curitiba, Brazil
| | - Thamile Luciane Reus
- Laboratório de Biologia Básica de Células Tronco, Instituto Carlos Chagas, Fiocruz, Curitiba, PR, Brazil
| | - Alessandra Melo de Aguiar
- Laboratório de Biologia Básica de Células Tronco, Instituto Carlos Chagas, Fiocruz, Curitiba, PR, Brazil
| | - Andrea Rodrigues Ávila
- Laboratório de Regulação da Expressão Gênica, Instituto Carlos Chagas, Fiocruz, Curitiba, PR, Brazil
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Garcia FP, Henrique da Silva Rodrigues J, Din ZU, Rodrigues-Filho E, Ueda-Nakamura T, Auzély-Velty R, Nakamura CV. A3K2A3-induced apoptotic cell death of Leishmania amazonensis occurs through caspase- and ATP-dependent mitochondrial dysfunction. Apoptosis 2018; 22:57-71. [PMID: 27761752 DOI: 10.1007/s10495-016-1308-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Leishmaniasis is a neglected tropical disease that affects millions of people worldwide. Current therapies mainly rely on antimonial drugs that are inadequate because of their high toxicity and increased drug resistance. An urgent need exists to discover new, more effective, more affordable, and more target-specific drugs. Pathways that are associated with apoptosis-like cell death have been identified in unicellular eukaryotes, including protozoan parasites. In the present study, we studied the mechanism of cell death that is induced by A3K2A3 against L. amazonensis. A3K2A3 is a dibenzylideneacetone that has an acyclic dienone that is attached to aryl groups in both β-positions, which is similar to curcuminoids and chalcone structures. This compound was previously shown to be safe with regard to cytotoxicity and active against the parasite. Biochemical and morphological approaches were used in the present study. The results suggested that A3K2A3 caused mitochondrial dysfunction in L. amazonensis promastigotes, leading to mechanisms of cell death that share some common phenotypic features with metazoan apoptosis, such as an increase in reactive oxygen species production, a decrease in the adenosine triphosphate ratio, phosphatidylserine exposure, a decrease in cell volume, caspase production, and DNA fragmentation. Altogether, these findings indicate that apoptosis can indeed be triggered by chemotherapeutic agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francielle Pelegrin Garcia
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Ciências Biológicas, Laboratório de Inovação Tecnológica no Desenvolvimento de Fármacos e Cosméticos, Universidade Estadual de Maringá, Bloco B-08, Av. Colombo 5790, Maringá, PR, CEP 87020-900, Brazil
| | - Jean Henrique da Silva Rodrigues
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Ciências Biológicas, Laboratório de Inovação Tecnológica no Desenvolvimento de Fármacos e Cosméticos, Universidade Estadual de Maringá, Bloco B-08, Av. Colombo 5790, Maringá, PR, CEP 87020-900, Brazil
| | - Zia Ud Din
- LaBioMMi, Departamento de Química, Universidade Federal de São Carlos, CP 676, São Carlos, SP, 13.565-905, Brazil
| | - Edson Rodrigues-Filho
- LaBioMMi, Departamento de Química, Universidade Federal de São Carlos, CP 676, São Carlos, SP, 13.565-905, Brazil
| | - Tânia Ueda-Nakamura
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Ciências Biológicas, Laboratório de Inovação Tecnológica no Desenvolvimento de Fármacos e Cosméticos, Universidade Estadual de Maringá, Bloco B-08, Av. Colombo 5790, Maringá, PR, CEP 87020-900, Brazil
| | | | - Celso Vataru Nakamura
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Ciências Biológicas, Laboratório de Inovação Tecnológica no Desenvolvimento de Fármacos e Cosméticos, Universidade Estadual de Maringá, Bloco B-08, Av. Colombo 5790, Maringá, PR, CEP 87020-900, Brazil.
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21
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Vandana, Singh AP, Singh J, Sharma R, Akhter M, Mishra PK, Saxena AK, Dixit R, Rathi B, Katyal A, Pandey KC. Biochemical characterization of unusual cysteine protease of P. falciparum, metacaspase-2 (MCA-2). Mol Biochem Parasitol 2018; 220:28-41. [PMID: 29317266 DOI: 10.1016/j.molbiopara.2018.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2017] [Revised: 01/02/2018] [Accepted: 01/03/2018] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Earlier studies on Plasmodium apoptosis revealed the presence of proteases with caspases like- activity, which are known as "metacaspases". Although this family of cysteine proteases is structurally similar to caspases with Cys-His dyad but their evolutionary significance and functional relevance remains largely unknown. These proteases are considered to be an important target against malaria due to their absence in humans. In this report, we have biochemically characterized metacaspase-2 (PfMCA-2) of P.falciparum. Enzymatic assay showed that PfMCA-2 efficiently cleaved arginine/lysine specific peptide, but not caspase-specific substrate. Consistently, PfMCA-2 activity was sensitive to effector caspases inhibitor, Z-FA-FMK, and mildly inhibited by aprotinin and E-64. However, general caspase inhibitors such as Z-VAD-FMK and Z-DEVD-FMK had no effect on PfMCA-2 activity. Z-FA-FMK inhibits parasite growth with an IC50 value of 2.7 μM along with the notable morphological changes. PfMCA-2 specifically expressed in schizonts and gametocyte stages and there was a notable depletion of PfMCA-2 expression in Z-FA-FMK treated schizonts and gametocytes stages of parasite. Notably, PfMCA-2 cleaves a phylogenetically conserved protein, TSN (Tudor staphylococcal nuclease) and the proteolysis of PfTSN did not occur after treatment with the Z-FA-FMK. The production of large amount of reactive oxygen species in presence of Z-FA-FMK caused oxidative stress which in turn leads to loss of cell viability. The oxidative stress further generates positive feedback for the occurrence of cell death in term of phosphatidylserine externalization and DNA fragmentation in vitro.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vandana
- National Institute of Malaria Research, New Delhi, 110077, India; Dr B. R. Ambedkar Centre for Biomedical Research, Delhi University, New Delhi, 110007, India
| | - Agam P Singh
- National Institute of Immunology, New Delhi, 110067, India
| | - Jitendra Singh
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Jamia Hamdard, New Delhi, 110062, India
| | - Ruby Sharma
- Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, 110067, India
| | - Mymoona Akhter
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Jamia Hamdard, New Delhi, 110062, India
| | - Pradyumna K Mishra
- National Institute for Research in Environmental Health, Bhopal 462001, India
| | - Ajay K Saxena
- Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, 110067, India
| | - Rajnikant Dixit
- National Institute of Malaria Research, New Delhi, 110077, India
| | - Brijesh Rathi
- Dept of Chemistry, Hans Raj College, Delhi University, India
| | - Anju Katyal
- Dr B. R. Ambedkar Centre for Biomedical Research, Delhi University, New Delhi, 110007, India
| | - Kailash C Pandey
- National Institute for Research in Environmental Health, Bhopal 462001, India.
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22
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Wu D, Qiao K, Feng M, Fu Y, Cai J, Deng Y, Tachibana H, Cheng X. Apoptosis of Acanthamoeba castellanii Trophozoites Induced by Oleic Acid. J Eukaryot Microbiol 2017; 65:191-199. [PMID: 28787535 DOI: 10.1111/jeu.12454] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2017] [Revised: 08/02/2017] [Accepted: 08/02/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Acanthamoeba spp. can be parasitic in certain situations and are responsible for serious human infections, including Acanthamoeba keratitis, granulomatous amoebic encephalitis, and cutaneous acanthamoebiasis. We analyzed the fatty acid composition of Acanthamoeba castellanii trophozoites and tested the inhibitory activity of the main fatty acids, oleic acid and arachidonic acid, in vitro. Oleic acid markedly inhibited the growth of A. castellanii, with trophozoite viability of 57.4% at a concentration of 200 μM. Caspase-3 staining and annexin V assays showed that apoptotic death occurred in A. castellanii trophozoites. Quantitative PCR and dot blot analysis showed increased levels of metacaspase and interleukin-1β converting enzyme, which is also an indication of apoptosis. In contrast, arachidonic acid showed negligible inhibition of growth of A. castellanii trophozoites. Stimulated expression of Atg3, Atg8 and LC3A/B genes and monodansylcadaverine labeling suggested that oleic acid induces apoptosis by triggering autophagy of trophozoites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Duo Wu
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Parasitology, Fudan University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200032, China
| | - Ke Qiao
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Parasitology, Fudan University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200032, China
| | - Meng Feng
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Parasitology, Fudan University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200032, China
| | - Yongfeng Fu
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Parasitology, Fudan University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200032, China
| | - Junlong Cai
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Parasitology, Fudan University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200032, China
| | - Yihong Deng
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Parasitology, Fudan University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200032, China
| | - Hiroshi Tachibana
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Tokai University School of Medicine, Isehara, Kanagawa, 259-1193, Japan
| | - Xunjia Cheng
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Parasitology, Fudan University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200032, China
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23
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Li M, Wang H, Liu J, Hao P, Ma L, Liu Q. The Apoptotic Role of Metacaspase in Toxoplasma gondii. Front Microbiol 2016; 6:1560. [PMID: 26834715 PMCID: PMC4717298 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2015.01560] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2015] [Accepted: 12/23/2015] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii is a major opportunistic pathogen that spreads in a range of animal species and human beings. Quite a few characterizations of apoptosis have been identified in T. gondii treated with apoptosis inducers, but the molecular mechanisms of the pathway are not clearly understood. Metacaspases are caspase-like cysteine proteases that can be found in plants, fungi, and protozoa in which caspases are absent. Metacaspases are multifunctional proteases involved in apoptosis-like cell death, insoluble protein aggregate clearance, and cell proliferation. To investigate whether T. gondii metacaspase (TgMCA) is involved in the apoptosis of the parasites, we generated TgMCA mutant strains. Western blot analysis indicated that the autoproteolytic processing of TgMCA was the same as that for metacaspases of some other species. Indirect immunofluorescence assay (IFA) showed that TgMCA was dispersed throughout the cytoplasm and relocated to the nucleus when the parasites were exposed to the extracellular environment, which indicated the execution of its function in the nucleus. The number of apoptosis parasites was significantly diminished in the TgMCA knockout strain and increased in the TgMCA overexpression strain after treatment with extracellular buffer, as determined by the terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick end labeling (TUNEL) assay. The lack of TgMCA did not affect the parasite propagation in vitro and virulence in vivo, suggesting that it is probably redundant in parasite propagation. But overexpression of TgMCA reduced the intracellular parasites growth in vitro. The TgMCA knockout strain showed more viability in extracellular buffer compared to the parental and overexpression lines. In this study, we demonstrated that TgMCA contributes to the apoptosis of T. gondii.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muzi Li
- Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology and Zoonosis, Ministry of Agriculture, National Animal Protozoa Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University Beijing, China
| | - Hui Wang
- Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology and Zoonosis, Ministry of Agriculture, National Animal Protozoa Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University Beijing, China
| | - Jing Liu
- Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology and Zoonosis, Ministry of Agriculture, National Animal Protozoa Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University Beijing, China
| | - Pan Hao
- Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology and Zoonosis, Ministry of Agriculture, National Animal Protozoa Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University Beijing, China
| | - Lei Ma
- Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology and Zoonosis, Ministry of Agriculture, National Animal Protozoa Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University Beijing, China
| | - Qun Liu
- Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology and Zoonosis, Ministry of Agriculture, National Animal Protozoa Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University Beijing, China
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24
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Caspase-like proteins: Acanthamoeba castellanii metacaspase and Dictyostelium discoideum paracaspase, what are their functions? J Biosci 2014; 39:909-16. [DOI: 10.1007/s12038-014-9486-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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25
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Márquez VE, Arias DG, Chiribao ML, Faral-Tello P, Robello C, Iglesias AA, Guerrero SA. Redox metabolism in Trypanosoma cruzi. Biochemical characterization of dithiol glutaredoxin dependent cellular pathways. Biochimie 2014; 106:56-67. [PMID: 25110158 DOI: 10.1016/j.biochi.2014.07.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2014] [Accepted: 07/29/2014] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
In Trypanosoma cruzi, the modification of thiols by glutathionylation-deglutathionylation and its potential relation to protective, regulatory or signaling functions have been scarcely explored. Herein we characterize a dithiolic glutaredoxin (TcrGrx), a redox protein with deglutathionylating activity, having potential functionality to control intracellular homeostasis of protein and non-protein thiols. The catalytic mechanism followed by TcrGrx was found dependent on thiol concentration. Results suggest that TcrGrx operates as a dithiolic or a monothiolic Grx, depending on GSH concentration. TcrGrx functionality to mediate reduction of protein and non-protein disulfides was studied. TcrGrx showed a preference for glutathionylated substrates respect to protein disulfides. From in vivo assays involving TcrGrx overexpressing parasites, we observed the contribution of the protein to increase the general resistance against oxidative damage and intracellular replication of the amastigote stage. Also, studies performed with epimastigotes overexpressing TcrGrx strongly suggest the involvement of the protein in a cellular pathway connecting an apoptotic stimulus and apoptotic-like cell death. Novel information is presented about the participation of this glutaredoxin not only in redox metabolism but also in redox signaling pathways in T. cruzi. The influence of TcrGrx in several parasite physiological processes suggests novel insights about the protein involvement in redox signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vanina E Márquez
- Instituto de Agrobiotecnología del Litoral, Facultad de Bioquímica y Ciencias Biológicas, CONICET-UNL, Santa Fe, Argentina
| | - Diego G Arias
- Instituto de Agrobiotecnología del Litoral, Facultad de Bioquímica y Ciencias Biológicas, CONICET-UNL, Santa Fe, Argentina
| | - Maria L Chiribao
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de la República, Montevideo, Uruguay; Unidad de Biología Molecular, Institut Pasteur, Montevideo, Uruguay
| | | | - Carlos Robello
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de la República, Montevideo, Uruguay; Unidad de Biología Molecular, Institut Pasteur, Montevideo, Uruguay
| | - Alberto A Iglesias
- Instituto de Agrobiotecnología del Litoral, Facultad de Bioquímica y Ciencias Biológicas, CONICET-UNL, Santa Fe, Argentina
| | - Sergio A Guerrero
- Instituto de Agrobiotecnología del Litoral, Facultad de Bioquímica y Ciencias Biológicas, CONICET-UNL, Santa Fe, Argentina.
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26
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Abstract
A decade of genome sequencing has transformed our understanding of how
trypanosomatid parasites have evolved and provided fresh impetus to explaining
the origins of parasitism in the Kinetoplastida. In this review, I will consider
the many ways in which genome sequences have influenced our view of genomic
reduction in trypanosomatids; how species-specific genes, and the genomic
domains they occupy, have illuminated the innovations in trypanosomatid genomes;
and how comparative genomics has exposed the molecular mechanisms responsible
for innovation and adaptation to a parasitic lifestyle.
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27
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Induction of mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress in Leishmania donovani by orally active clerodane diterpene. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2014; 58:5916-28. [PMID: 25070112 DOI: 10.1128/aac.02459-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
This study was performed to investigate the mechanistic aspects of cell death induced by a clerodane diterpene (K-09) in Leishmania donovani promastigotes that was previously demonstrated to be safe and orally active against visceral leishmaniasis (VL). K-09 caused depolarization of the mitochondrion and the generation of reactive oxygen species, triggering an apoptotic response in L. donovani promastigotes. Mitochondrial dysfunction subsequently resulted in the release of cytochrome c into the cytosol, impairing ATP production. Oxidative stress caused the depletion of reduced glutathione, while pretreatment with antioxidant N-acetyl cysteine (NAC) was able to abrogate oxidative stress. However, NAC failed to restore the mitochondrial membrane potential or intracellular calcium homeostasis after K-09 treatment, suggesting that the generation of oxidative stress is a downstream event relative to the other events. Caspase-3/-7-like protease activity and genomic DNA fragmentation were observed. Electron microscopy studies revealed gross morphological alterations typical of apoptosis, including severe mitochondrial damage, pyknosis of the nucleus, structural disruption of the mitochondrion-kinetoplast complex, flagellar pocket alterations, and the displacement of organelles. Moreover, an increased number of lipid droplets was detected after K-09 treatment, which is suggestive of altered lipid metabolism. Our results indicate that K-09 induces mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress-mediated apoptotic cell death in L. donovani promastigotes, sharing many features with metazoan apoptosis. These mechanistic insights provide a basis for further investigation toward the development of K-09 as a potential drug candidate for VL.
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28
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Singh N, Mishra BB, Bajpai S, Singh RK, Tiwari VK. Natural product based leads to fight against leishmaniasis. Bioorg Med Chem 2013; 22:18-45. [PMID: 24355247 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2013.11.048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 132] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2013] [Revised: 11/18/2013] [Accepted: 11/23/2013] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The growing incidence of parasitic resistance against generic pentavalent antimonials, specifically for visceral disease in Indian subcontinent, is a serious issue in Leishmania control. Notwithstanding the two treatment alternatives, that is amphotericin B and miltefosine are being effectively used but their high cost and therapeutic complications limit their use in endemic areas. In the absence of a vaccine candidate, identification, and characterization of novel drugs and targets is a major requirement of leishmanial research. This review describes current drug regimens, putative drug targets, numerous natural products that have shown promising antileishmanial activity alongwith some key issues and strategies for future research to control leishmaniasis worldwide.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nisha Singh
- Molecular Immunology Laboratory, Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi 221005, India
| | - Bhuwan B Mishra
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi 221005, India
| | - Surabhi Bajpai
- Molecular Immunology Laboratory, Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi 221005, India
| | - Rakesh K Singh
- Molecular Immunology Laboratory, Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi 221005, India.
| | - Vinod K Tiwari
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi 221005, India.
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29
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Ni Nyoman AD, Lüder CGK. Apoptosis-like cell death pathways in the unicellular parasite Toxoplasma gondii following treatment with apoptosis inducers and chemotherapeutic agents: a proof-of-concept study. Apoptosis 2013; 18:664-80. [PMID: 23468121 PMCID: PMC3634991 DOI: 10.1007/s10495-013-0832-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Ancient pathways of an apoptosis-like cell death have been identified in unicellular eukaryotes including protozoan parasites. Here, we examined programmed cell death in the apicomplexan Toxoplasma gondii which is a common intracellular pathogen of humans and warm-blooded animals. Treatment of extracellular T. gondii with various pro-apoptotic stimuli significantly induced DNA strand breaks as revealed by TUNEL and flow cytometry. Using staurosporine or miltefosine as pro-apoptotic stimuli, parasites also presented a reduced cell size, i.e. pyknosis and externalized phosphatidylserine while the plasma membrane remained intact. Importantly, staurosporine also induced DNA strand breaks in intracellular T. gondii. Data mining of the Toxoplasma genome resource identified 17 putative cell death-associated genes encoding proteases, a nuclease and several apoptosis regulators. Staurosporine-treated parasites but not controls strongly up-regulated several of these genes in a time-dependent fashion with a putative PDCD2 protein being more than 100-fold up-regulated. However, the mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨm) remained intact and caspase-like activity increased only slightly during staurosporine-triggered cell death. As compared to staurosporine, the transcriptional response of parasites to miltefosine was more restricted but PDCD2 was again strongly induced. Furthermore, T. gondii lost their ΔΨm and rapidly presented strong caspase-like activity during miltefosine treatment. Consequently, protease inhibitors abrogated miltefosine-induced but not staurosporine-induced Toxoplasma cell death. Finally, toxoplasmacidal drugs triggered DNA strand breaks in extracellular T. gondii. Interestingly, clindamycin also induced markers of an apoptosis-like cell death in intracellular parasites. Together, the data indicate that T. gondii possesses ancient apoptosis-like cell death machinery which can be triggered by chemotherapeutic agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ayu Dewi Ni Nyoman
- Institute for Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center, Georg-August-University, Kreuzbergring 57, 37075, Göttingen, Germany
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Udayana University, Sudirman Denpasar, 80232 Bali, Indonesia
| | - Carsten G. K. Lüder
- Institute for Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center, Georg-August-University, Kreuzbergring 57, 37075, Göttingen, Germany
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30
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Dick SA, Megeney LA. Cell death proteins: an evolutionary role in cellular adaptation before the advent of apoptosis. Bioessays 2013; 35:974-83. [PMID: 23943356 DOI: 10.1002/bies.201300052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Programmed cell death (PCD) or apoptosis is a broadly conserved phenomenon in metazoans, whereby activation of canonical signal pathways induces an ordered dismantling and death of a cell. Paradoxically, the constituent proteins and pathways of PCD (most notably the metacaspase/caspase protease mediated signal pathways) have been demonstrated to retain non-death functions across all phyla including yeast, nematodes, drosophila, and mammals. The ancient conservation of both death and non-death functions of PCD proteins raises an interesting evolutionary conundrum: was the primordial intent of these factors to induce cell death or to regulate other cellular adaptations? Here, we propose the hypothesis that apoptotic behavior of PCD proteins evolved or were co-opted from core non-death functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah A Dick
- Sprott Center for Stem Cell Research, Regenerative Medicine Program, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Ottawa, ON, Canada; Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada
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31
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Lazarin-Bidóia D, Desoti VC, Ueda-Nakamura T, Dias Filho BP, Nakamura CV, Silva SO. Further evidence of the trypanocidal action of eupomatenoid-5: confirmation of involvement of reactive oxygen species and mitochondria owing to a reduction in trypanothione reductase activity. Free Radic Biol Med 2013; 60:17-28. [PMID: 23376033 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2013.01.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2012] [Accepted: 01/11/2013] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Our group assays natural products that are less toxic and more effective than available nitroheterocycles as promising therapeutic options for patients with Chagas disease. Our previous study reported the trypanocidal activity of eupomatenoid-5, a neolignan isolated from the leaves of Piper regnellii var. pallescens, against the three main parasitic forms of Trypanosoma cruzi. The present study further characterizes the biochemical and morphological alterations induced by this compound to elucidate the mechanisms of action involved in the cell death of T. cruzi. We show that eupomatenoid-5 induced oxidative imbalance in the three parasitic forms, especially trypomastigotes, reflected by a decrease in the activity of trypanothione reductase and increase in the formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). A reduction of mitochondrial membrane potential was then triggered, further impairing the cell redox system through the production of more ROS and reactive nitrogen species. Altogether, these effects led to oxidative stress, reflected by lipid peroxidation and DNA fragmentation. These alterations are key events in the induction of parasite death through various pathways, including apoptosis, necrosis, and autophagy.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Lazarin-Bidóia
- Programa de Pós Graduação em Ciências Farmacêuticas, Universidade Estadual de Maringá, 87020-900 Maringá, PR, Brasil
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32
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Kessler RL, Soares MJ, Probst CM, Krieger MA. Trypanosoma cruzi response to sterol biosynthesis inhibitors: morphophysiological alterations leading to cell death. PLoS One 2013; 8:e55497. [PMID: 23383204 PMCID: PMC3561218 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0055497] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2012] [Accepted: 12/23/2012] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The protozoan parasite Trypanosoma cruzi displays similarities to fungi in terms of its sterol lipid biosynthesis, as ergosterol and other 24-alkylated sterols are its principal endogenous sterols. The sterol pathway is thus a potential drug target for the treatment of Chagas disease. We describe here a comparative study of the growth inhibition, ultrastructural and physiological changes leading to the death of T. cruzi cells following treatment with the sterol biosynthesis inhibitors (SBIs) ketoconazole and lovastatin. We first calculated the drug concentration inhibiting epimastigote growth by 50% (EC(50)/72 h) or killing all cells within 24 hours (EC(100)/24 h). Incubation with inhibitors at the EC(50)/72 h resulted in interesting morphological changes: intense proliferation of the inner mitochondrial membrane, which was corroborated by flow cytometry and confocal microscopy of the parasites stained with rhodamine 123, and strong swelling of the reservosomes, which was confirmed by acridine orange staining. These changes to the mitochondria and reservosomes may reflect the involvement of these organelles in ergosterol biosynthesis or the progressive autophagic process culminating in cell lysis after 6 to 7 days of treatment with SBIs at the EC(50)/72 h. By contrast, treatment with SBIs at the EC(100)/24 h resulted in rapid cell death with a necrotic phenotype: time-dependent cytosolic calcium overload, mitochondrial depolarization and reservosome membrane permeabilization (RMP), culminating in cell lysis after a few hours of drug exposure. We provide the first demonstration that RMP constitutes the "point of no return" in the cell death cascade, and propose a model for the necrotic cell death of T. cruzi. Thus, SBIs trigger cell death by different mechanisms, depending on the dose used, in T. cruzi. These findings shed new light on ergosterol biosynthesis and the mechanisms of programmed cell death in this ancient protozoan parasite.
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33
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Aquilino C, Gonzalez Rubio ML, Seco EM, Escudero L, Corvo L, Soto M, Fresno M, Malpartida F, Bonay P. Differential trypanocidal activity of novel macrolide antibiotics; correlation to genetic lineage. PLoS One 2012; 7:e40901. [PMID: 22859958 PMCID: PMC3409201 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0040901] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2012] [Accepted: 06/14/2012] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Here we report the systematic study of the anti-trypanocidal activity of some new products derived from S. diastatus on 14 different T. cruzi strains spanning the six genetic lineages of T. cruzi. As the traditional growth inhibition curves giving similar IC(50) showed great differences on antibiotic and lineage tested, we decided to preserve the wealth of information derived from each inhibition curve and used an algorithm related to potency of the drugs, combined in a matrix data set used to generate a cluster tree. The cluster thus generated based just on drug susceptibility data closely resembles the phylogenies of the lineages derived from genetic data and provides a novel approach to correlate genetic data with phenotypes related to pathogenesis of Chagas disease. Furthermore we provide clues on the drugs mechanism of action.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolina Aquilino
- Centro de Biología Molecular “Severo Ochoa”, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Campus de Cantoblanco, Madrid, Spain
| | - Maria Luisa Gonzalez Rubio
- Centro de Biología Molecular “Severo Ochoa”, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Campus de Cantoblanco, Madrid, Spain
| | - Elena Maria Seco
- Centro Nacional de Biotecnología, Campus de Cantoblanco, Madrid, Spain
| | - Leticia Escudero
- Centro Nacional de Biotecnología, Campus de Cantoblanco, Madrid, Spain
| | - Laura Corvo
- Centro de Biología Molecular “Severo Ochoa”, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Campus de Cantoblanco, Madrid, Spain
| | - Manuel Soto
- Centro de Biología Molecular “Severo Ochoa”, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Campus de Cantoblanco, Madrid, Spain
| | - Manuel Fresno
- Centro de Biología Molecular “Severo Ochoa”, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Campus de Cantoblanco, Madrid, Spain
| | | | - Pedro Bonay
- Centro de Biología Molecular “Severo Ochoa”, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Campus de Cantoblanco, Madrid, Spain
- * E-mail:
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34
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Singh N, Kumar M, Singh RK. Leishmaniasis: current status of available drugs and new potential drug targets. ASIAN PAC J TROP MED 2012; 5:485-97. [PMID: 22575984 DOI: 10.1016/s1995-7645(12)60084-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 259] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2012] [Revised: 03/15/2012] [Accepted: 04/15/2012] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The control of Leishmania infection relies primarily on chemotherapy till date. Resistance to pentavalent antimonials, which have been the recommended drugs to treat cutaneous and visceral leishmaniasis, is now widespread in Indian subcontinents. New drug formulations like amphotericin B, its lipid formulations, and miltefosine have shown great efficacy to treat leishmaniasis but their high cost and therapeutic complications limit their usefulness. In addition, irregular and inappropriate uses of these second line drugs in endemic regions like state of Bihar, India threaten resistance development in the parasite. In context to the limited drug options and unavailability of either preventive or prophylactic candidates, there is a pressing need to develop true antileishmanial drugs to reduce the disease burden of this debilitating endemic disease. Notwithstanding significant progress of leishmanial research during last few decades, identification and characterization of novel drugs and drug targets are far from satisfactory. This review will initially describe current drug regimens and later will provide an overview on few important biochemical and enzymatic machineries that could be utilized as putative drug targets for generation of true antileishmanial drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nisha Singh
- Molecular Immunology Laboratory, Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
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35
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Laverrière M, Cazzulo JJ, Alvarez VE. Antagonic activities of Trypanosoma cruzi metacaspases affect the balance between cell proliferation, death and differentiation. Cell Death Differ 2012; 19:1358-69. [PMID: 22402587 DOI: 10.1038/cdd.2012.12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Metacaspases are distant relatives of animal caspases present in plants, fungi and protozoa. At variance with caspases, metacaspases exhibit stringent specificity for basic amino-acid residues and are absolutely dependent on millimolar concentrations of calcium. In the protozoan parasite Trypanosoma cruzi, metacaspases have been suggested to be involved in an apoptosis-like phenomenon upon exposure of the parasite to fresh human serum (FHS). Nuclear relocalization of metacaspases was observed after FHS treatment and overexpression of metacaspase-5 led to enhanced sensitivity to this stimulus. Here we report some biochemical properties of T. cruzi metacaspases. Performing fluorescent-activated cell sorting (FACS) analysis of epimastigotes inducibly overexpressing metacaspase-3, we demonstrate a role for this metacaspase in cell cycle progression, protection of epimastigotes from naturally occurring cell death and differentiation to infective metacyclic trypomastigotes. We also show that regulation of metacaspase-3 activity is important for cell cycle completion inside the mammalian host. On the other hand, inducible overexpression of metacaspase-5 lacking its C-terminal domain caused an apoptotic-like response. These results suggest that the two T. cruzi metacaspases could play an important role in the life cycle and bring to light the close relationship between cell division, death and differentiation in this ancient unicellular eukaryote.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Laverrière
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biotecnológicas IIB-INTECH, Universidad Nacional de San Martín - CONICET, Buenos Aires, Argentina
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36
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Miltefosine induces metacaspase and PARP genes expression in Leishmania infantum. Braz J Infect Dis 2011; 15:442-8. [DOI: 10.1016/s1413-8670(11)70225-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2011] [Accepted: 05/11/2011] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
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37
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Bayona JC, Nakayasu ES, Laverrière M, Aguilar C, Sobreira TJP, Choi H, Nesvizhskii AI, Almeida IC, Cazzulo JJ, Alvarez VE. SUMOylation pathway in Trypanosoma cruzi: functional characterization and proteomic analysis of target proteins. Mol Cell Proteomics 2011; 10:M110.007369. [PMID: 21832256 DOI: 10.1074/mcp.m110.007369] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
SUMOylation is a relevant protein post-translational modification in eukaryotes. The C terminus of proteolytically activated small ubiquitin-like modifier (SUMO) is covalently linked to a lysine residue of the target protein by an isopeptide bond, through a mechanism that includes an E1-activating enzyme, an E2-conjugating enzyme, and transfer to the target, sometimes with the assistance of a ligase. The modification is reversed by a protease, also responsible for SUMO maturation. A number of proteins have been identified as SUMO targets, participating in the regulation of cell cycle progression, transcription, translation, ubiquitination, and DNA repair. In this study, we report that orthologous genes corresponding to the SUMOylation pathway are present in the etiological agent of Chagas disease, Trypanosoma cruzi. Furthermore, the SUMOylation system is functionally active in this protozoan parasite, having the requirements for SUMO maturation and conjugation. Immunofluorescence analysis showed that T. cruzi SUMO (TcSUMO) is predominantly found in the nucleus. To identify SUMOylation targets and get an insight into their physiological roles we generated transfectant T. cruzi epimastigote lines expressing a double-tagged T. cruzi SUMO, and SUMOylated proteins were enriched by tandem affinity chromatography. By two-dimensional liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry a total of 236 proteins with diverse biological functions were identified as potential T. cruzi SUMO targets. Of these, metacaspase-3 was biochemically validated as a bona fide SUMOylation substrate. Proteomic studies in other organisms have reported that orthologs of putative T. cruzi SUMOylated proteins are similarly modified, indicating conserved functions for protein SUMOylation in this early divergent eukaryote.
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Raina P, Kaur S. Knockdown of LdMC1 and Hsp70 by antisense oligonucleotides causes cell-cycle defects and programmed cell death in Leishmania donovani. Mol Cell Biochem 2011; 359:135-49. [PMID: 21805355 DOI: 10.1007/s11010-011-1007-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2011] [Accepted: 07/19/2011] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Programmed cell death (PCD) has important implications in the biology of unicellular parasites, especially in devising control strategies against them. In this study, we examined the role of metacaspase LdMC1 and heat shock protein Hsp70 in Leishmania donovani through transient gene knockdown using antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs), during MG132-induced PCD. Proteasome inhibitor MG132 was used for inducing PCD in the in vitro culture of Leishmania donovani, which was confirmed by morphological and molecular markers. To assess the role of LdMC1 and Hsp70, ASOs with partially modified phosphorothioate backbone were designed against the protein-coding regions of these genes. Promastigotes and axenic ALFs were exposed to ASOs, and gene knockdown was confirmed using RT-PCR. Exposure to MG132 and ASOs led to morphological defects, DNA fragmentation, delay in progressing through the S-phase of cell-cycle and a decrease in the mitochondrial membrane potential. Antisense knockdown of both these genes, individually as well as together, caused phenotypic and molecular characteristics of PCD. Simultaneous knockdown of both LdMC1 and Hsp70 led to a severity in these defects. Parasites co-exposed to MG132 along with ASOs suffered the maximum damage. Together, these data suggest that LdMC1 and Hsp70 have an indispensable role in Leishmania cell-cycle and are, therefore, important for its survival.
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Affiliation(s)
- Puneet Raina
- Parasitology Laboratory, Department of Zoology, Panjab University, Chandigarh, 160014, India
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39
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Abstract
Metacaspases are cysteine-dependent proteases found in protozoa, fungi and plants and are distantly related to metazoan caspases. Although metacaspases share structural properties with those of caspases, they lack Asp specificity and cleave their targets after Arg or Lys residues. Studies performed over the past 10 years have demonstrated that metacaspases are multifunctional proteases essential for normal physiology of non-metazoan organisms. This article provides a comprehensive overview of the metacaspase function and molecular regulation during programmed cell death, stress and cell proliferation, as well as an analysis of the first metacaspase-mediated proteolytic pathway. To prevent further misapplication of caspase-specific molecular probes for measuring and inhibiting metacaspase activity, we provide a list of probes suitable for metacaspases.
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Alvarez VE, Niemirowicz GT, Cazzulo JJ. The peptidases of Trypanosoma cruzi: digestive enzymes, virulence factors, and mediators of autophagy and programmed cell death. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-PROTEINS AND PROTEOMICS 2011; 1824:195-206. [PMID: 21621652 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbapap.2011.05.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2011] [Revised: 05/11/2011] [Accepted: 05/12/2011] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Trypanosoma cruzi, the agent of the American Trypanosomiasis, Chagas disease, contains cysteine, serine, threonine, aspartyl and metallo peptidases. The most abundant among these enzymes is cruzipain, a cysteine proteinase expressed as a mixture of isoforms, some of them membrane-bound. The enzyme is an immunodominant antigen in human chronic Chagas disease and seems to be important in the host/parasite relationship. Inhibitors of cruzipain kill the parasite and cure infected mice, thus validating the enzyme as a very promising target for the development of new drugs against the disease. In addition, a 30kDa cathepsin B-like enzyme, two metacaspases and two autophagins have been described. Serine peptidases described in the parasite include oligopeptidase B, a member of the prolyl oligopeptidase family involved in Ca(2+)-signaling during mammalian cell invasion; a prolyl endopeptidase (Tc80), against which inhibitors are being developed, and a lysosomal serine carboxypeptidase. Metallopeptidases homologous to the gp63 of Leishmania spp. are present, as well as two metallocarboxypeptidases belonging to the M32 family, previously found only in prokaryotes. The proteasome has properties similar to those of other eukaryotes, and its inhibition by lactacystin blocks some differentiation steps in the life cycle of the parasite. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Proteolysis 50 years after the discovery of lysosome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vanina E Alvarez
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biotecnológicas (IIB-INTECH, Universidad Nacional de San Martín-CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina
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Genes C, Baquero E, Echeverri F, Maya JD, Triana O. Mitochondrial dysfunction in Trypanosoma cruzi: the role of Serratia marcescens prodigiosin in the alternative treatment of Chagas disease. Parasit Vectors 2011; 4:66. [PMID: 21548954 PMCID: PMC3118961 DOI: 10.1186/1756-3305-4-66] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2011] [Accepted: 05/06/2011] [Indexed: 03/26/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Chagas disease is a health threat for many people, mostly those living in Latin America. One of the most important problems in treatment is the limitation of existing drugs. Prodigiosin, produced by Serratia marcescens (Rhodnius prolixus endosymbiont), belongs to the red-pigmented bacterial prodiginine family, which displays numerous biological activities, including antibacterial, antifungal, antiprotozoal, antimalarial, immunosuppressive, and anticancer properties. Here we describe its effects on Trypanosoma cruzi mitochondria belonging to Tc I and Tc II. RESULTS Parasites exposed to prodigiosin altered the mitochondrial function and oxidative phosphorylation could not have a normal course, probably by inhibition of complex III. Prodigiosin did not produce cytotoxic effects in lymphocytes and Vero cells and has better effects than benznidazole. Our data suggest that the action of prodigiosin on the parasites is mediated by mitochondrial structural and functional disruptions that could lead the parasites to an apoptotic-like cell death process. CONCLUSIONS Here, we propose a potentially useful trypanocidal agent derived from knowledge of an important aspect of the natural life cycle of the parasite: the vector-parasite interaction. Our results indicate that prodigiosin could be a good candidate for the treatment of Chagas disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos Genes
- Grupo Biología y Control de Enfermedades Infecciosas BCEI-SIU, Instituto de Biología, Universidad de Antioquia, Medellín, Colombia
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Meslin B, Zalila H, Fasel N, Picot S, Bienvenu AL. Are protozoan metacaspases potential parasite killers? Parasit Vectors 2011; 4:26. [PMID: 21356053 PMCID: PMC3058108 DOI: 10.1186/1756-3305-4-26] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2010] [Accepted: 02/28/2011] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Mechanisms concerning life or death decisions in protozoan parasites are still imperfectly understood. Comparison with higher eukaryotes has led to the hypothesis that caspase-like enzymes could be involved in death pathways. This hypothesis was reinforced by the description of caspase-related sequences in the genome of several parasites, including Plasmodium, Trypanosoma and Leishmania. Although several teams are working to decipher the exact role of metacaspases in protozoan parasites, partial, conflicting or negative results have been obtained with respect to the relationship between protozoan metacaspases and cell death. The aim of this paper is to review current knowledge of protozoan parasite metacaspases within a drug targeting perspective.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benoît Meslin
- Malaria Research Unit, University Lyon 1, 8 Avenue Rockefeller, 69373 Lyon cedex 08, France
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43
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Goldenberg S, Ávila AR. Aspects of Trypanosoma cruzi stage differentiation. ADVANCES IN PARASITOLOGY 2011; 75:285-305. [PMID: 21820561 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-385863-4.00013-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
Trypanosoma cruzi alternates between different morphological and functional types during its life cycle. Since the discovery of this parasite at the beginning of the twentieth century, efforts have been made to determine the basis of its pathogenesis in the course of Chagas disease and its biochemical constituents. There has also been work to develop tools and strategies for prophylaxis of the important disease caused by these parasites which affects millions of people in Latin America. The identification of axenic conditions allowing T. cruzi growth and differentiation has led to the identification and characterization of stage-specific antigens as well as a better characterization of the biological properties and biochemical particularities of each individual developmental stage. The recent availability of genomic data should pave the way to new progress in our knowledge of the biology and pathogenesis of T. cruzi. This review addresses the differentiation and major stage-specific antigens of T. cruzi and attempts to describe the complexity of the parasite and of the disease it causes.
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Entamoeba histolytica: Differential gene expression during programmed cell death and identification of early pro- and anti-apoptotic signals. Exp Parasitol 2010; 126:497-505. [DOI: 10.1016/j.exppara.2010.05.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2009] [Revised: 05/26/2010] [Accepted: 05/27/2010] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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45
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Smirlis D, Duszenko M, Ruiz AJ, Scoulica E, Bastien P, Fasel N, Soteriadou K. Targeting essential pathways in trypanosomatids gives insights into protozoan mechanisms of cell death. Parasit Vectors 2010; 3:107. [PMID: 21083891 PMCID: PMC3136144 DOI: 10.1186/1756-3305-3-107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2010] [Accepted: 11/17/2010] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Apoptosis is a normal component of the development and health of multicellular organisms. However, apoptosis is now considered a prerogative of unicellular organisms, including the trypanosomatids of the genera Trypanosoma spp. and Leishmania spp., causative agents of some of the most important neglected human diseases. Trypanosomatids show typical hallmarks of apoptosis, although they lack some of the key molecules contributing to this process in metazoans, like caspase genes, Bcl-2 family genes and the TNF-related family of receptors. Despite the lack of these molecules, trypanosomatids appear to have the basic machinery to commit suicide. The components of the apoptotic execution machinery of these parasites are slowly coming into light, by targeting essential processes and pathways with different apoptogenic agents and inhibitors. This review will be confined to the events known to drive trypanosomatid parasites to apoptosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Despina Smirlis
- Laboratory of Molecular Parasitology, Department of Microbiology, Hellenic Pasteur Institute, 127 Bas, Sofias Ave,, 11521 Athens, Greece.
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46
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Pollitt LC, Colegrave N, Khan SM, Sajid M, Reece SE. Investigating the evolution of apoptosis in malaria parasites: the importance of ecology. Parasit Vectors 2010; 3:105. [PMID: 21080937 PMCID: PMC3136143 DOI: 10.1186/1756-3305-3-105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2010] [Accepted: 11/16/2010] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Apoptosis is a precisely regulated process of cell death which occurs widely in multicellular organisms and is essential for normal development and immune defences. In recent years, interest has grown in the occurrence of apoptosis in unicellular organisms. In particular, as apoptosis has been reported in a wide range of species, including protozoan malaria parasites and trypanosomes, it may provide a novel target for intervention. However, it is important to understand when and why parasites employ an apoptosis strategy before the likely long- and short-term success of such an intervention can be evaluated. The occurrence of apoptosis in unicellular parasites provides a challenge for evolutionary theory to explain as organisms are expected to have evolved to maximise their own proliferation, not death. One possible explanation is that protozoan parasites undergo apoptosis in order to gain a group benefit from controlling their density as this prevents premature vector mortality. However, experimental manipulations to examine the ultimate causes behind apoptosis in parasites are lacking. In this review, we focus on malaria parasites to outline how an evolutionary framework can help make predictions about the ecological circumstances under which apoptosis could evolve. We then highlight the ecological considerations that should be taken into account when designing evolutionary experiments involving markers of cell death, and we call for collaboration between researchers in different fields to identify and develop appropriate markers in reference to parasite ecology and to resolve debates on terminology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura C Pollitt
- Institute of Evolutionary Biology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, School of Biological Sciences, Edinburgh, EH9 3JT, UK
| | - Nick Colegrave
- Institute of Evolutionary Biology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, School of Biological Sciences, Edinburgh, EH9 3JT, UK
| | - Shahid M Khan
- Leiden Malaria Research group, Department of Parasitology, Leiden University Medical Center, The Netherlands
| | - Mohammed Sajid
- Leiden Malaria Research group, Department of Parasitology, Leiden University Medical Center, The Netherlands
| | - Sarah E Reece
- Institute of Evolutionary Biology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, School of Biological Sciences, Edinburgh, EH9 3JT, UK
- Centre for Immunity, Infection and Evolution, University of Edinburgh, School of Biological Sciences, Edinburgh, EH9 3JT, UK
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Guillermo LVC, Pereira WF, De Meis J, Ribeiro-Gomes FL, Silva EM, Kroll-Palhares K, Takiya CM, Lopes MF. Targeting caspases in intracellular protozoan infections. Immunopharmacol Immunotoxicol 2010; 31:159-73. [PMID: 18785049 DOI: 10.1080/08923970802332164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/09/2023]
Abstract
Caspases are cysteine aspartases acting either as initiators (caspases 8, 9, and 10) or executioners (caspases 3, 6, and 7) to induce programmed cell death by apoptosis. Parasite infections by certain intracellular protozoans increase host cell life span by targeting caspase activation. Conversely, caspase activation, followed by apoptosis of lymphocytes and other cells, prevents effective immune responses to chronic parasite infection. Here we discuss how pharmacological inhibition of caspases might affect the immunity to protozoan infections, by either blocking or delaying apoptosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Landi V C Guillermo
- Carlos Chagas Filho Institute of Biophysics, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
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Ali M, Al-Olayan EM, Lewis S, Matthews H, Hurd H. Naturally occurring triggers that induce apoptosis-like programmed cell death in Plasmodium berghei ookinetes. PLoS One 2010; 5. [PMID: 20844583 PMCID: PMC2936559 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0012634] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2010] [Accepted: 08/10/2010] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Several protozoan parasites have been shown to undergo a form of programmed cell death that exhibits morphological features associated with metazoan apoptosis. These include the rodent malaria parasite, Plasmodium berghei. Malaria zygotes develop in the mosquito midgut lumen, forming motile ookinetes. Up to 50% of these exhibit phenotypic markers of apoptosis; as do those grown in culture. We hypothesised that naturally occurring signals induce many ookinetes to undergo apoptosis before midgut traversal. To determine whether nitric oxide and reactive oxygen species act as such triggers, ookinetes were cultured with donors of these molecules. Exposure to the nitric oxide donor SNP induced a significant increase in ookinetes with condensed nuclear chromatin, activated caspase-like molecules and translocation of phosphatidylserine that was dose and time related. Results from an assay that detects the potential-dependent accumulation of aggregates of JC-1 in mitochondria suggested that nitric oxide does not operate via loss of mitochondrial membrane potential. L-DOPA (reactive oxygen species donor) also caused apoptosis in a dose and time dependent manner. Removal of white blood cells significantly decreased ookinetes exhibiting a marker of apoptosis in vitro. Inhibition of the activity of nitric oxide synthase in the mosquito midgut epithelium using L-NAME significantly decreased the proportion of apoptotic ookinetes and increased the number of oocysts that developed. Introduction of a nitric oxide donor into the blood meal had no effect on mosquito longevity but did reduce prevalence and intensity of infection. Thus, nitric oxide and reactive oxygen species are triggers of apoptosis in Plasmodium ookinetes. They occur naturally in the mosquito midgut lumen, sourced from infected blood and mosquito tissue. Up regulation of mosquito nitric oxide synthase activity has potential as a transmission blocking strategy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Medhat Ali
- School of Life Sciences, Keele University, Keele, United Kingdom
- Department of Zoology, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Ebtesam M. Al-Olayan
- School of Life Sciences, Keele University, Keele, United Kingdom
- Department of Zoology, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Steven Lewis
- School of Life Sciences, Keele University, Keele, United Kingdom
| | - Holly Matthews
- School of Life Sciences, Keele University, Keele, United Kingdom
| | - Hilary Hurd
- School of Life Sciences, Keele University, Keele, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
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van Zandbergen G, Lüder CGK, Heussler V, Duszenko M. Programmed cell death in unicellular parasites: a prerequisite for sustained infection? Trends Parasitol 2010; 26:477-83. [PMID: 20591738 DOI: 10.1016/j.pt.2010.06.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2010] [Revised: 05/31/2010] [Accepted: 06/04/2010] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
The detection of markers typical for metazoan programmed cell death (PCD) in diverse protozoan parasites raised a debate about the evolution of PCD processes and its impact on the biology of single-celled parasites. By applying the unified criteria recently developed for metazoan cell death, the conclusion is made that cell death in protozoan parasites also occurs in a programmed fashion. Several molecules or pathways which regulate PCD in higher eukaryotes have been implicated in the death of unicellular parasites. Furthermore, we emphasize that PCD enables the regulation of parasite densities in distinct host compartments and aids in avoiding inflammatory responses, thereby facilitating a sustained infection. We therefore propose that PCD pathways might represent ideal targets to combat protozoan parasites by their own means.
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50
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Specific antibodies induce apoptosis in Trypanosoma cruzi epimastigotes. Parasitol Res 2010; 106:1327-37. [PMID: 20237802 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-010-1803-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2009] [Accepted: 02/16/2010] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
The susceptibility of Trypanosoma cruzi epimastigotes to lysis by normal or immune sera in a complement-dependent reaction has been reported. Mouse immune sera depleted complement-induced damage in epimastigotes characterized by morphological changes and death. The purpose of this work was to study the mechanism of death in epimastigotes exposed to decomplemented mouse immune serum. Epimastigotes were maintained in RPMI medium. Immune sera were prepared in mice by immunization with whole crude epimastigote extracts. Viable epimastigotes were incubated with decomplemented normal or immune sera at 37 degrees C. By electron microscopy, agglutinated parasites showed characteristic patterns of membrane fusion between two or more parasites; this fusion also produced interdigitation of the subpellicular microtubules. Apoptosis was determined by flow cytometry using terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick end labeling (TUNEL) and annexin V assays. Nuclear features were examined by 4'-,6-diamidino-2'-phenylindole diHCI cytochemistry that demonstrated apoptotic nuclear condensation. Caspase activity was also measured. TUNEL results showed that parasites incubated with decomplemented immune sera took up 26% of specific fluorescence as compared to 1.3% in parasites incubated with decomplemented normal sera. The Annexin-V-Fluos staining kit revealed that epimastigotes incubated with decomplemented immune sera exposed phosphatidylserine on the external leaflet of the plasma membrane. The incubation of parasites with immune sera showed caspase 3 activity. We conclude that specific antibodies are able to induce agglutination and apoptosis in epimastigotes, although the pathway is not elucidated.
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