Endothelial P2Y2 receptor regulates LPS-induced neutrophil transendothelial migration in vitro

Inflammatory Response to Regulated Cell Death in Gout and Its Functional Implications

Gout, a chronic inflammatory arthritis disease, is characterized by hyperuricemia and caused by interactions between genetic, epigenetic, and metabolic factors. Acute gout symptoms are triggered by the inflammatory response to monosodium urate crystals, which is mediated by the innate immune system and immune cells (e.g., macrophages and neutrophils), the NACHT, LRR, and PYD domains-containing protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome activation, and pro-inflammatory cytokine (e.g., IL-1β) release. Recent studies have indicated that the multiple programmed cell death pathways involved in the inflammatory response include pyroptosis, NETosis, necroptosis, and apoptosis, which initiate inflammatory reactions. In this review, we explore the correlation and interactions among these factors and their roles in the pathogenesis of gout to provide future research directions and possibilities for identifying potential novel therapeutic targets and enhancing our understanding of gout pathogenesis.

Neutrophils: fast and furious-the nucleotide pathway

Nucleotide signaling is a key element of the neutrophil activation pathway. Neutrophil recruitment and migration to injured tissues is guided by purinergic receptor sensitization, mostly induced by extracellular adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and its hydrolysis product, adenosine (ADO), which is primarily produced by the CD39-CD73 axis located at the neutrophil cell surface. In inflammation unrelated to cancer, neutrophil activation via purinergic signaling aims to eliminate antigens and promote an immune response with minimal damage to healthy tissues; however, an antagonistic response may be expected in tumors. Indeed, alterations in purinergic signaling favor the accumulation of extracellular ATP and ADO in the microenvironment of solid tumors, which promote tumor progression by inducing cell proliferation, angiogenesis, and escape from immune surveillance. Since neutrophils and their N1/N2 polarization spectrum are being considered new components of cancer-related inflammation, the participation of purinergic signaling in pro-tumor activities of neutrophils should also be considered. However, there is a lack of studies investigating purinergic signaling in human neutrophil polarization and in tumor-associated neutrophils. In this review, we discussed the human neutrophil response elicited by nucleotides in inflammation and extrapolated its behavior in the context of cancer. Understanding these mechanisms in cancerous conditions may help to identify new biological targets and therapeutic strategies, particularly regarding tumors that are refractory to traditional chemo- and immunotherapy.

Integrin-dependent migratory switches regulate the translocation of Toxoplasma-infected dendritic cells across brain endothelial monolayers

Multiple cellular processes, such as immune responses and cancer cell metastasis, crucially depend on interconvertible migration modes. However, knowledge is scarce on how infectious agents impact the processes of cell adhesion and migration at restrictive biological barriers. In extracellular matrix, dendritic cells (DCs) infected by the obligate intracellular protozoan Toxoplasma gondii undergo mesenchymal-to-amoeboid transition (MAT) for rapid integrin-independent migration. Here, in a cellular model of the blood–brain barrier, we report that parasitised DCs adhere to polarised endothelium and shift to integrin-dependent motility, accompanied by elevated transendothelial migration (TEM). Upon contact with endothelium, parasitised DCs dramatically reduced velocities and adhered under both static and shear stress conditions, thereby obliterating the infection-induced amoeboid motility displayed in collagen matrix. The motility of adherent parasitised DCs on endothelial monolayers was restored by blockade of β1 and β2 integrins or ICAM-1, which conversely reduced motility on collagen-coated surfaces. Moreover, parasitised DCs exhibited enhanced translocation across highly polarised primary murine brain endothelial cell monolayers. Blockade of β1, β2 integrins, ICAM-1 and PECAM-1 reduced TEM frequencies. Finally, gene silencing of the pan-integrin-cytoskeleton linker talin (Tln1) or of β1 integrin (Itgb1) in primary DCs resulted in increased motility on endothelium and decreased TEM. Adding to the paradigms of leukocyte diapedesis, the findings provide novel insights in how an intracellular pathogen impacts the migratory plasticity of leukocytes in response to the cellular environment, to promote infection-related dissemination.

Purinergic Regulation of Endothelial Barrier Function

Increased vascular permeability is a hallmark of several cardiovascular anomalies, including ischaemia/reperfusion injury and inflammation. During both ischaemia/reperfusion and inflammation, massive amounts of various nucleotides, particularly adenosine 5'-triphosphate (ATP) and adenosine, are released that can induce a plethora of signalling pathways via activation of several purinergic receptors and may affect endothelial barrier properties. The nature of the effects on endothelial barrier function may depend on the prevalence and type of purinergic receptors activated in a particular tissue. In this review, we discuss the influence of the activation of various purinergic receptors and downstream signalling pathways on vascular permeability during pathological conditions.

P2Y receptors for extracellular nucleotides: Contributions to cancer progression and therapeutic implications

Purinergic receptors for extracellular nucleotides and nucleosides contribute to a vast array of cellular and tissue functions, including cell proliferation, intracellular and transmembrane ion flux, immunomodulation and thrombosis. In mammals, the purinergic receptor system is composed of G protein-coupled P1 receptors A₁, A_2A, A_2B and A₃ for extracellular adenosine, P2X1-7 receptors that are ATP-gated ion channels and G protein-coupled P2Y_{1,2,4,6,11,12,13 and 14} receptors for extracellular ATP, ADP, UTP, UDP and/or UDP-glucose. Recent studies have implicated specific P2Y receptor subtypes in numerous oncogenic processes, including cancer tumorigenesis, metastasis and chemotherapeutic drug resistance, where G protein-mediated signaling cascades modulate intracellular ion concentrations and activate downstream protein kinases, Src family kinases as well as numerous mitogen-activated protein kinases. We are honored to contribute to this special issue dedicated to the founder of the field of purinergic signaling, Dr. Geoffrey Burnstock, by reviewing the diverse roles of P2Y receptors in the initiation, progression and metastasis of specific cancers with an emphasis on pharmacological and genetic strategies employed to delineate cell-specific and P2Y receptor subtype-specific responses that have been investigated using in vitro and in vivo cancer models. We further highlight bioinformatic and empirical evidence on P2Y receptor expression in human clinical specimens and cover clinical perspectives where P2Y receptor-targeting interventions may have therapeutic relevance to cancer treatment.

Nucleotides regulate the common molecular mechanisms that underlie neurodegenerative diseases; Therapeutic implications

Neurodegenerative diseases (ND) are a heterogeneous group of neurological disorders characterized by a progressive loss of neuronal function which results in neuronal death. Although a specific toxic factor has been identified for each ND, all of them share common pathological molecular mechanisms favouring the disease development. In the final stages of ND, patients become unable to take care of themselves and decline to a total functional incapacitation that leads to their death. Some of the main factors which contribute to the disease progression include proteasomal dysfunction, neuroinflammation, synaptic alterations, protein aggregation, and oxidative stress. Over recent years, evidence has been accumulated to suggest that purinergic signaling plays a key role in the aforementioned molecular pathways. In this review, we revise the implications of the purinergic signaling in the common molecular mechanism underlying the ND. In particular, we focus on the role of the purinergic receptors P2X7, P2Y₂ and the ectoenzyme tissue-nonspecific alkaline phosphatase (TNAP).

Platelet Munc13-4 regulates hemostasis, thrombosis and airway inflammation

Platelet degranulation is crucial for hemostasis and may participate in inflammation. Exocytosis in platelets is mediated by SNARE proteins and should be controlled by Munc13 proteins. We found that platelets express Munc13-2 and -4. We assessed platelet granule exocytosis in Munc13-2 and -4 global and conditional knockout (KO) mice, and observed that deletion of Munc13-4 ablates dense granule release and indirectly impairs alpha granule exocytosis. We found no exocytic role for Munc13-2 in platelets, not even in the absence of Munc13-4. In vitro, Munc13-4-deficient platelets exhibited defective aggregation at low doses of collagen. In a flow chamber assay, we observed that Munc13-4 acted as a rate-limiting factor in the formation of thrombi. In vivo, we observed a dose-dependency between Munc13-4 expression in platelets and both venous bleeding time and time to arterial thrombosis. Finally, in a model of allergic airway inflammation, we found that platelet-specific Munc13-4 KO mice had a reduction in airway hyper-responsiveness and eosinophilic inflammation. Taken together, our results indicate that Munc13-4-dependent platelet dense granule release plays essential roles in hemostasis, thrombosis and allergic inflammation.

P2Y6 Receptors Regulate CXCL10 Expression and Secretion in Mouse Intestinal Epithelial Cells

In this study, we investigated the role of extracellular nucleotides in chemokine (KC, MIP-2, MCP-1, and CXCL10) expression and secretion by murine primary intestinal epithelial cells (IECs) with a focus on P2Y₆ receptors. qRT-PCR experiments showed that P2Y₆ was the dominant nucleotide receptor expressed in mouse IEC. In addition, the P2Y₆ ligand UDP induced expression and secretion of CXCL10. For the other studies, we took advantage of mice deficient in P2Y₆ (P2ry6^-/-). Similar expression levels of P2Y₁, P2Y₂, P2X2, P2X4, and A_2A were detected in P2ry6^-/- and WT IEC. Agonists of TLR3 (poly(I:C)), TLR4 (LPS), P2Y₁, and P2Y₂ increased the expression and secretion of CXCL10 more prominently in P2ry6^-/- IEC than in WT IEC. CXCL10 expression and secretion induced by poly(I:C) in both P2ry6^-/- and WT IEC were inhibited by general P2 antagonists (suramin and Reactive-Blue-2), by apyrase, and by specific antagonists of P2Y₁, P2Y₂, P2Y₆ (only in WT), and P2X4. Neither adenosine nor an A_2A antagonist had an effect on CXCL10 expression and secretion. Macrophage chemotaxis was induced by the supernatant of poly(I:C)-treated IEC which was consistent with the level of CXCL10 secreted. Finally, the non-nucleotide agonist FGF2 induced MMP9 mRNA expression also at a higher level in P2ry6^-/- IEC than in WT IEC. In conclusion, extracellular nucleotides regulate CXCL10 expression and secretion by IEC. In the absence of P2Y₆, these effects are modulated by other P2 receptors also present on IEC. These data suggest that the presence of P2Y₆ regulates chemokine secretion and may also regulate IEC homeostasis.

Molecular Pathophysiology of Gout

Three contradictory clinical presentations of gout have puzzled clinicians and basic scientists for some time: first, the crescendo of sterile inflammation in acute gouty arthritis; second, its spontaneous resolution, despite monosodium urate (MSU) crystal persistence in the synovium; and third, immune anergy to MSU crystal masses observed in tophaceous or visceral gout. Here, we provide an update on the molecular pathophysiology of these gout manifestations, namely, how MSU crystals can trigger the auto-amplification loop of necroinflammation underlying the crescendo of acute gouty arthritis. We also discuss new findings, such as how aggregating neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) might drive the resolution of arthritis and how these structures, together with granuloma formation, might support immune anergy, but yet promote tissue damage and remodeling during tophaceous gout.

Regulation of proteasome activity by P2Y2 receptor underlies the neuroprotective effects of extracellular nucleotides

The Ubiquitin-Proteasome System (UPS) is essential for the regulation of the cellular proteostasis. Indeed, it has been postulated that an UPS dysregulation is the common mechanism that underlies several neurological disorders. Considering that extracellular nucleotides, through their selective P2Y₂ receptor (P2Y₂R), play a neuroprotective role in various neurological disorders that course with an UPS impairment, we wonder if this neuroprotective capacity resulted from their ability to modulate the UPS. Using a cellular model expressing two different UPS reporters, we found that the stimulation of P2Y₂R by its selective agonist Up₄U induced a significant reduction of UPS reporter levels. This reduction was due to an increase in two of the three peptidase proteasome activities, chymotrypsin and postglutamyl, caused by an increased expression of proteasome constitutive catalytic subunits β1 and β5. The intracellular signaling pathway involved required the activation of IP₃/MEK1/2/ERK but was independent of PKC or PKA. Interestingly, the P2Y₂R activation was able to revert both UPS-reporter accumulation and the cell death induced by a prolonged inhibition of UPS. Finally, we also observed that intracerebroventricular administration of Up₄U induced a significant increase both of chymotrypsin and postglutamyl activities as well as an increased expression of proteasome subunits β1 and β5 in the hippocampus of wild-type mice, but not in P2Y₂R KO mice. All these results strongly suggest that the capacity to modulate the UPS activity via P2Y₂R is the molecular mechanism which is how the nucleotides play a neuroprotective role in neurological disorders.

The P2RY2 Receptor Induces Carcinoma Cell Migration and EMT Through Cross-Talk With Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor

Extracellular nucleotides are signaling elements present in the tumor microenvironment; however, their role in tumor growth is not completely understood. In the present study, we asked whether nucleotides regulate cell migration in ovarian carcinoma-derived cells. We observed that 100 μM UTP induced migration in SKOV-3 cells (1.57 ± 0.08 fold over basal), and RT-PCR showed expression of transcripts for the P2RY2 and P2RY4 receptors. Knockdown of P2RY2 expression in SKOV-3 cells (P2RY2-KD) abolished the UTP-induced migration. The mechanism activated by UTP to induce migration involves transactivation of the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) since we observed that the EGFR kinase inhibitor AG1478 and the PI3K inhibitor Wortmannin inhibit this response (to 0.76 ± 0.23 and 0.46 ± 0.14 relative to the control, respectively). In agreement with these observations, UTP was able to modify the phosphorylation state of the EGFR; likewise, the induction of ERK1/2 phosphorylation promoted by UTP was abolished by a 30-60 min treatment with AG1478. Our data also suggested that the enhanced cell migration involves the epithelium to mesenchymal transition (EMT) process, since a 12 h stimulation of SKOV-3 cells with 100 μM UTP showed an increase in vimentin and SNAIL protein levels (459.8 ± 132.4% over basal for SNAIL). Interestingly, treatment with apyrase (10 U/mL) reduces the migration of control cells and induces a considerable enrichment of E-cadherin in the cell-cell contacts, favoring an epithelial phenotype and strongly suggesting that the nucleotides released by tumor cells and acting through the P2RY2 receptor are potential regulators of invasiveness.

P2Y2R deficiency attenuates experimental autoimmune uveitis development

We aimed to study the role of the nucleotide receptor P2Y2R in the development of experimental autoimmune uveitis (EAU). EAU was induced in P2Y2+/+ and P2Y2-/- mice by immunization with IRBP peptide or by adoptive transfer of in vitro restimulated semi-purified IRBP-specific enriched T lymphocytes from spleens and lymph nodes isolated from native C57Bl/6 or P2Y2+/+ and P2Y2-/- immunized mice. Clinical and histological scores were used to grade disease severity. Splenocytes and lymph node cell phenotypes were analyzed using flow cytometry. Semi-purified lymphocytes and MACS-purified CD4+ T lymphocytes from P2Y2+/+ and P2Y2-/- immunized mice were tested for proliferation and cytokine secretion. Our data show that clinical and histological scores were significantly decreased in IRBP-immunized P2Y2-/- mice as in P2Y2-/- mice adoptively transfered with enriched T lymphocytes from C57Bl/6 IRBP-immunized mice. In parallel, naïve C57Bl/6 mice adoptively transferred with T lymphocytes from P2Y2-/- IRBP-immunized mice also showed significantly less disease. No differences in term of spleen and lymph node cell recruitment or phenotype appeared between P2Y2-/- and P2Y2+/+ immunized mice. However, once restimulated in vitro with IRBP, P2Y2-/- T cells proliferate less and secrete less cytokines than the P2Y2+/+ one. We further found that antigen-presenting cells of P2Y2-/- immunized mice were responsible for this proliferation defect. Together our data show that P2Y2-/- mice are less susceptible to mount an autoimmune response against IRBP. Those results are in accordance with the danger model, which makes a link between autoreactive lymphocyte activation, cell migration and the release of danger signals such as extracellular nucleotides.

How endothelial cells regulate transmigration of leukocytes in the inflammatory response

Leukocytes attach to vascular endothelial cells at the site of inflammation via a series of intercellular adhesive interactions. In a separate step in leukocyte extravasation, transendothelial migration is regulated by molecules that play no role in the preceding steps of tethering, rolling, adhesion, and locomotion. Transendothelial migration itself can be dissected into a series of distinct interactions regulated sequentially by molecules concentrated at the endothelial cell border; these include platelet/endothelial cell adhesion molecule, poliovirus receptor (CD155), and CD99. These molecules are components of the lateral border recycling compartment (LBRC), a perijunctional network of interconnected tubulovesicular membrane that traffics to surround the leukocyte as it passes across the endothelial cell. This targeted recycling of LBRC requires kinesin to move the membrane along microtubules, and interfering with LBRC trafficking blocks transmigration of neutrophils, monocytes, and lymphocytes. The LBRC is also recruited to mediate transcellular migration when that occurs. Movement of the LBRC is coordinated with events on the luminal surface, such as clustering of intercellular adhesion molecule 1 and vascular cell adhesion molecule 1 under the migrating leukocyte, as well as movement of vascular endothelial cadherin and its associated catenins out of the junction at the site of transendothelial migration. How these events are coordinated is not known, but their regulation shares common signaling pathways that may serve to connect these steps.

Nucleotides regulate secretion of the inflammatory chemokine CCL2 from human macrophages and monocytes

CCL2 is an important inflammatory chemokine involved in monocyte recruitment to inflamed tissues. The extracellular nucleotide signalling molecules UTP and ATP acting via the P2Y2 receptor are known to induce CCL2 secretion in macrophages. We confirmed this in the human THP-1 monocytic cell line showing that UTP is as efficient as LPS at inducing CCL2 at early time points (2–6 hours). Expression and calcium mobilisation experiments confirmed the presence of functional P2Y2 receptors on THP-1 cells. UTP stimulation of human peripheral CD14+ monocytes showed low responses to LPS (4-hour stimulation) but a significant increase above background following 6 hours of treatment. The response to UTP in human monocytes was variable and required stimulation >6 hours. With such variability in response we looked for single nucleotide polymorphisms in P2RY2 that could affect the functional response. Sequencing of P2RY2 from THP-1 cells revealed the presence of a single nucleotide polymorphism altering amino acid 312 from arginine to serine (rs3741156). This polymorphism is relatively common at a frequency of 0.276 (n = 404 subjects). Finally, we investigated CCL2 secretion in response to LPS or UTP in human macrophages expressing 312Arg-P2Y2 or 312Ser-P2Y2 where only the latter exhibited significant UTP-induced CCL2 secretion (n = 5 donors per group).

The P2Y2 Receptor Interacts with VE-Cadherin and VEGF Receptor-2 to Regulate Rac1 Activity in Endothelial Cells

Vascular endothelial cadherin (VE-cadherin) mediates homophylic adhesion between endothelial cells and is an important regulator of angiogenesis, blood vessel permeability and leukocyte trafficking. Rac1, a member of the Rho family of GTPases, controls VE-cadherin adhesion by acting downstream of several growth factors, including angiopoietin-1 and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). Here we show that UTP-induced activation of the G_q protein-coupled P2Y₂ nucleotide receptor (P2Y₂R) in human coronary artery endothelial cells (HCAECs) activated Rac1 and caused a transient complex to form between P2Y₂R, VE-cadherin and VEGF receptor-2 (VEGFR-2). Knockdown of VE-cadherin expression with siRNA did not affect UTP-induced activation of extracellular signal-regulated kinases 1/2 (ERK1/2) but led to a loss of UTP-induced Rac1 activation and tyrosine phosphorylation of p120 catenin, a cytoplasmic protein known to interact with VE-cadherin. Activation of the P2Y₂R by UTP also caused a prolonged interaction between p120 catenin and vav2 (a guanine nucleotide exchange factor for Rac) that correlated with the kinetics of UTP-induced tyrosine phosphorylation of p120 catenin and VE-cadherin. Inhibitors of VEGFR-2 (SU1498) or Src (PP2) significantly diminished UTP-induced Rac1 activation, tyrosine phosphorylation of p120 catenin and VE-cadherin, and association of the P2Y₂R with VE-cadherin and p120 catenin with vav2. These findings suggest that the P2Y₂R uses Src and VEGFR-2 to mediate association of the P2Y₂R with VE-cadherin complexes in endothelial adherens junctions to activate Rac1.

Loss of P2Y₂ nucleotide receptors enhances early pathology in the TgCRND8 mouse model of Alzheimer's disease

Neuroinflammation is a prominent feature in Alzheimer's disease (AD) and activation of the brain's innate immune system, particularly microglia, has been postulated to both retard and accelerate AD progression. Recent studies indicate that the G protein-coupled P2Y2 nucleotide receptor (P2Y2R) is an important regulator of innate immunity by assisting in the recruitment of monocytes to injured tissue, neutrophils to bacterial infections and eosinophils to allergen-infected lungs. In this study, we investigated the role of the P2Y2R in progression of an AD-like phenotype in the TgCRND8 mouse model that expresses Swedish and Indiana mutations in amyloid precursor protein (APP). Our results indicate that P2Y 2 R expression is upregulated in TgCRND8 mouse brain within 10 weeks of age and then decreases after 25 weeks of age, as compared to littermate controls expressing low levels of the P2Y 2 R. TgCRND8 mice with homozygous P2Y 2 R deletion survive less than 5 weeks, whereas mice with heterozygous P2Y 2 R deletion survive for 12 weeks, a time point when TgCRND8 mice are fully viable. Heterozygous P2Y 2 R deletion in TgCRND8 mice increased β-amyloid (Aβ) plaque load and soluble Aβ1-42 levels in the cerebral cortex and hippocampus, decreased the expression of the microglial marker CD11b in these brain regions and caused neurological deficits within 10 weeks of age, as compared to age-matched TgCRND8 mice. These findings suggest that the P2Y2R is important for the recruitment and activation of microglial cells in the TgCRND8 mouse brain and that the P2Y2R may regulate neuroprotective mechanisms through microglia-mediated clearance of Aβ that when lost can accelerate the onset of an AD-like phenotype in the TgCRND8 mouse.

Purinergic signaling in inflammatory cells: P2 receptor expression, functional effects, and modulation of inflammatory responses

Extracellular ATP and related nucleotides promote a wide range of pathophysiological responses via activation of cell surface purinergic P2 receptors. Almost every cell type expresses P2 receptors and/or exhibit regulated release of ATP. In this review, we focus on the purinergic receptor distribution in inflammatory cells and their implication in diverse immune responses by providing an overview of the current knowledge in the literature related to purinergic signaling in neutrophils, macrophages, dendritic cells, lymphocytes, eosinophils, and mast cells. The pathophysiological role of purinergic signaling in these cells include among others calcium mobilization, actin polymerization, chemotaxis, release of mediators, cell maturation, cytotoxicity, and cell death. We finally discuss the therapeutic potential of P2 receptor subtype selective drugs in inflammatory conditions.

Cross-linking of IgGs bound on circulating neutrophils leads to an activation of endothelial cells: possible role of rheumatoid factors in rheumatoid arthritis-associated vascular dysfunction

BACKGROUND

Rheumatoid arthritis is characterized by the presence of circulating auto-antibodies, including rheumatoid factors, which recognize the Fc portion of IgGs. The neutrophil is the most abundant circulating leukocyte and it expresses high levels of FcγRs on its surface. The aim of the present study was to examine the capacity of circulating human neutrophils to be activated by rheumatoid factors and the consequences of these events on endothelium.

METHODS

Neutrophil-bound IgGs were cross-linked with anti-human IgGs to mimick the presence of circulating rheumatoid factors and FcγRs-dependent signalling events and functions were examined. The IgG and IgM composition of rheumatoid factors isolated from the serum of RA patients was characterized. Adhesion of neutrophils to endothelial cells was quantified in response to the addition of rheumatoid factors.

RESULTS

Cross-linking of IgGs bound on neutrophils leads to FcγRs-dependent tyrosine phosphorylation, mobilisation of intracellular calcium and the extracellular release of superoxide anions and lysozyme. Incubation of endothelial cells with the supernatant of activated neutrophils increases ICAM-1 expression and IL-8 production by endothelial cells. Finally, rheumatoid factors enhance neutrophil adhesion to endothelial cells.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results show that activation of neutrophils' FcγRs by rheumatoid factors could participate in rheumatoid arthritis-associated vascular damage.

Platelet-derived nucleotides promote tumor-cell transendothelial migration and metastasis via P2Y2 receptor

Tumor cells can activate platelets, which in turn facilitate tumor cell survival and dissemination. The exact mechanisms by which platelets promote metastasis have remained unclear. Here, we show that adenine nucleotides released from tumor cell-activated platelets induce opening of the endothelial barrier to allow transendothelial migration of tumor cells and thereby promote cancer cell extravasation. We identified the endothelial P2Y2 receptor, which is activated by ATP, as the primary mediator of this effect. Mice deficient in P2Y2 or lacking ATP secretion from platelets show strongly reduced tumor cell metastasis. These findings demonstrate a mechanism by which platelets promote cancer cell metastasis and suggest the P2Y2 receptor and its endothelial downstream signaling mechanisms as a target for antimetastatic therapies.

P2Y2 receptor agonist with enhanced stability protects the heart from ischemic damage in vitro and in vivo

Extracellular nucleotides acting via P2 receptors play important roles in cardiovascular physiology/pathophysiology. Pyrimidine nucleotides activate four G protein-coupled P2Y receptors (P2YRs): P2Y2 and P2Y4 (UTP-activated), P2Y6, and P2Y14. Previously, we showed that uridine 5'-triphosphate (UTP) activating P2Y2R reduced infarct size and improved mouse heart function after myocardial infarct (MI). Here, we examined the cardioprotective role of P2Y2R in vitro and in vivo following MI using uridine-5'-tetraphosphate δ-phenyl ester tetrasodium salt (MRS2768), a selective and more stable P2Y2R agonist. Cultured rat cardiomyocytes pretreated with MRS2768 displayed protection from hypoxia [as revealed by lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) release and propidium iodide (PI) binding], which was reduced by P2Y2R antagonist, AR-C118925 (5-((5-(2,8-dimethyl-5H-dibenzo[a,d][7]annulen-5-yl)-2-oxo-4-thioxo-3,4-dihydropyrimidin-1(2H)-yl)methyl)-N-(1H-tetrazol-5-yl)furan-2-carboxamide). In vivo, echocardiography and infarct size staining of triphenyltetrazolium chloride (TTC) in 3 groups of mice 24 h post-MI: sham, MI, and MI+MRS2768 indicated protection. Fractional shortening (FS) was higher in MRS2768-treated mice than in MI alone (40.0 ± 3.1 % vs. 33.4 ± 2.7 %, p < 0.001). Troponin T and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) measurements demonstrated that MRS2768 pretreatment reduced myocardial damage (p < 0.05) and c-Jun phosphorylation increased. Thus, P2Y2R activation protects cardiomyocytes from hypoxia in vitro and reduces post-ischemic myocardial damage in vivo.

P2Y receptors in the mammalian nervous system: pharmacology, ligands and therapeutic potential

P2Y receptors for extracellular nucleotides are coupled to activation of a variety of G proteins and stimulate diverse intracellular signaling pathways that regulate functions of cell types that comprise the central nervous system (CNS). There are 8 different subtypes of P2Y receptor expressed in cells of the CNS that are activated by a select group of nucleotide agonists. Here, the agonist selectivity of these 8 P2Y receptor subtypes is reviewed with an emphasis on synthetic agonists with high potency and resistance to degradation by extracellular nucleotidases that have potential applications as therapeutic agents. In addition, the recent identification of a wide variety of subtype-selective antagonists is discussed, since these compounds are critical for discerning cellular responses mediated by activation of individual P2Y receptor subtypes. The functional expression of P2Y receptor subtypes in cells that comprise the CNS is also reviewed and the role of each subtype in the regulation of physiological and pathophysiological responses is considered. Other topics include the role of P2Y receptors in the regulation of blood-brain barrier integrity and potential interactions between different P2Y receptor subtypes that likely impact tissue responses to extracellular nucleotides in the CNS. Overall, current research suggests that P2Y receptors in the CNS regulate repair mechanisms that are triggered by tissue damage, inflammation and disease and thus P2Y receptors represent promising targets for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases.

Neuroprotective roles of the P2Y(2) receptor

Purinergic signaling plays a unique role in the brain by integrating neuronal and glial cellular circuits. The metabotropic P1 adenosine receptors and P2Y nucleotide receptors and ionotropic P2X receptors control numerous physiological functions of neuronal and glial cells and have been implicated in a wide variety of neuropathologies. Emerging research suggests that purinergic receptor interactions between cells of the central nervous system (CNS) have relevance in the prevention and attenuation of neurodegenerative diseases resulting from chronic inflammation. CNS responses to chronic inflammation are largely dependent on interactions between different cell types (i.e., neurons and glia) and activation of signaling molecules including P2X and P2Y receptors. Whereas numerous P2 receptors contribute to functions of the CNS, the P2Y(2) receptor is believed to play an important role in neuroprotection under inflammatory conditions. While acute inflammation is necessary for tissue repair due to injury, chronic inflammation contributes to neurodegeneration in Alzheimer's disease and occurs when glial cells undergo prolonged activation resulting in extended release of proinflammatory cytokines and nucleotides. This review describes cell-specific and tissue-integrated functions of P2 receptors in the CNS with an emphasis on P2Y(2) receptor signaling pathways in neurons, glia, and endothelium and their role in neuroprotection.

P2 receptors for extracellular nucleotides in the central nervous system: role of P2X7 and P2Y₂ receptor interactions in neuroinflammation

Extracellular nucleotides induce cellular responses in the central nervous system (CNS) through the activation of ionotropic P2X and metabotropic P2Y nucleotide receptors. Activation of these receptors regulates a wide range of physiological and pathological processes. In this review, we present an overview of the current literature regarding P2X and P2Y receptors in the CNS with a focus on the contribution of P2X7 and P2Y(2) receptor-mediated responses to neuroinflammatory and neuroprotective mechanisms.

Neutrophil phagocytosis is down-regulated by nucleotides until encounter with pathogens

Extracellular nucleotides such as ATP, ADP, UTP, UDP and UDPG can trigger intracellular signal transduction via purinergic (P2Y) receptors, and their interaction induces a wide range of biological effects in various cells. In this study, we investigated P2Y expression and the effects of nucleotides on chemotaxis and phagocytosis in human neutrophils. RT-PCR detected broad expression of P2Y subfamilies in neutrophils, as well as monocytes. Moreover, intracellular Ca(2+) increased in response to ATP, ADP, UTP and UDP in these cells, suggesting that P2Y receptors were functionally expressed. In neutrophils, chemotactic activity was increased significantly in response to ATP and ADP, and moderately in response to UTP and UDP; actin polymerization by ATP, ADP, UTP and UDP was also evident in the cells. Interestingly, we found that ATP and ADP, which enhanced chemotaxis activity significantly, had inhibitory effects on phagocytosis by neutrophils. These findings provide new evidence for the regulation of neutrophil phagocytosis by nucleotides. Furthermore, this inhibitory effect was completely lost upon co-culture with fMLP or LPS, known constituents of bacteria, resulting in recovery of normal phagocytic activity. Taken together, these findings suggest that ATP and ADP constantly stimulate the chemotactic activity of neutrophils in peripheral blood, but may inhibit their phagocytic activity until they encounter pathogens, in order to prevent them acting against self-tissues or cells, as fMLP and LPS commonly present in pathogens would again trigger normal phagocytic activity.

[The role of ecto-purines in inflammation leading to demyelination - new means for therapies against multiple sclerosis]

Nucleotides released from activated and/or injured cells activate P2 receptors. Extracellular nucleotides serve as danger signals or damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) that trigger various immune responses. Indeed, P2 receptors are highly expressed in the astrocytes, microglia and other immune cells such as T and B lymphocytes that migrate to the central nervous system. The activation of P2 receptors triggers the secretion of proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines as well as immune cell migration and proliferation that contribute to demyelination and axonal damage. The activation of P2 receptors is controlled by the ectonucleotidases which hydrolyze extracellular nucleotides. Ecto-NTPDases and ecto-5'-nucleotidase are expressed in the astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, microglia, endothelial cells and activated T cells. The hydrolysis of extracellular ATP and ADP by enzymes results in the generation of extracellular adenosine. This nucleoside interacts with P1 receptors and activates anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive responses in the cells involved in MS.

P2Y11 impairs cell proliferation by induction of cell cycle arrest and sensitizes endothelial cells to cisplatin-induced cell death

Extracellular ATP mediates a wide range of physiological effects, including cell proliferation, differentiation, maturation, and migration. However, the effect of ATP on cell proliferation has been contradictory, and the mechanism is not fully understood. In the current study, we found that extracellular ATP significantly inhibited the proliferation of human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) and human aortic endothelial cells (HAECs). Treatment with ATP did not induce cell apoptosis but instead induced cell cycle arrest in S phase. ATP induced the phosphorylation of ERK1/2, but the ERK inhibitors, U0126 and PD9809, did not regulate the inhibition of cell proliferation induced by ATP. However, ATP-induced inhibition of cell proliferation was blocked by suramin, a nonspecific antagonist of the P2Y receptors, and endothelial cells expressed P2Y11, a P2Y receptor that specifically binds ATP. Moreover, the down-regulation of P2Y11 by RNA interference not only reversed the inhibition of cell proliferation but also ameliorated cell cycle arrest in S phase. In addition, P2Y11 sensitized endothelial cells to cisplatin-induced cell death by down-regulation of the expression of Bcl-2. Taken together, these results suggest that extracellular ATP impairs cell proliferation by triggering signaling to induce cell cycle arrest and sensitizes cell to death via P2Y11 in endothelial cells.

Impact of ectoenzymes on p2 and p1 receptor signaling

P2 receptors that are activated by extracellular nucleotides (e.g., ATP, ADP, UTP, UDP, Ap(n)A) and P1 receptors activated by adenosine control a diversity of biological processes. The activation of these receptors is tightly regulated by ectoenzymes that metabolize their ligands. This review presents these enzymes as well as their roles in the regulation of P2 and P1 receptor activation. We focus specifically on the role of ectoenzymes in processes of our interest, that is, inflammation, vascular tone, and neurotransmission. An update on the development of ectonucleotidase inhibitors is also presented.

Emerging role of extracellular nucleotides and adenosine in multiple sclerosis

Extracellular nucleotides and adenosine play important roles in inflammation. These signaling molecules interact with the cell-surface-located P2 and P1 receptors, respectively, that are widely distributed in the central nervous system and generally exert opposite effects on immune responses. Indeed, extracellular ATP, ADP, UTP, and UDP serve as alarmins or damage-associated molecular patterns that activate mainly proinflammatory mechanisms, whereas adenosine has potent anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive effects. This review discusses the actual and potential role of extracellular nucleotides and adenosine in multiple sclerosis (MS).

The endothelium-derived contracting factor uridine adenosine tetraphosphate induces P2Y(2)-mediated pro-inflammatory signaling by monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 formation

It is very well established that purinergic signaling plays a relevant role in vascular physiology and pathophysiology. Recently, a new purinoceptor agonist uridine adenosine tetraphosphate (Up(4)A) has been identified as a highly potent endothelial-derived contracting factor (EDCF). The purpose of the study was to investigate Up(4)A's influence on pro-inflammatory mechanisms. An early component of the inflammatory response in atherogenesis is the oxidative stress-induced formation of monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1). Here, we investigated the influence of Up(4)A on MCP-1 formation and characterized the underlying signaling transduction mechanisms in rat vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs). Up(4)A induced MCP-1 expression and secretion in VSMCs via the activation of P2Y(2) in a concentration-dependent manner. MCP-1 formation depends on generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). To determine whether the predominant source of ROS in the vasculature, the NAD(P)H oxidase (Nox), is involved, we used different approaches. The ROS scavenger, tiron, the Nox inhibitor, apocynin and diphenyl-iodonium, as well as Nox1 knockdown, diminished the Up(4)A-induced MCP-1 formation. Rac1 activation and p47(phox) translocation from cytosol to the plasma membrane-both required for assembling and activation of Nox, were stimulated by Up(4)A. ERK1/2 and p38 activation is essential for the intracellular signal transduction. In summary, Up(4)A induced Nox1-dependent ROS generation, which further stimulated MCP-1 formation via MAPK phosphorylation in VSMCs. This process requires the activation of the G-protein coupled receptor P2Y(2). Therefore, Up(4)A is not only a potent EDCF but also a potent inductor of pro-inflammatory response in the vascular wall.

Immune cell regulation by autocrine purinergic signalling

Stimulation of almost all mammalian cell types leads to the release of cellular ATP and autocrine feedback through a diverse array of purinergic receptors. Depending on the types of purinergic receptors that are involved, autocrine signalling can promote or inhibit cell activation and fine-tune functional responses. Recent work has shown that autocrine signalling is an important checkpoint in immune cell activation and allows immune cells to adjust their functional responses based on the extracellular cues provided by their environment. This Review focuses on the roles of autocrine purinergic signalling in the regulation of both innate and adaptive immune responses and discusses the potential of targeting purinergic receptors for treating immune-mediated disease.