Development of ethosomal gel of ranolazine for improved topical delivery: In vitro and ex vivo evaluation

Design and Development of a Self-nanoemulsifying Drug Delivery System for Co-delivery of Curcumin and Naringin for Improved Wound Healing Activity in an Animal Model

The present study endeavored to design and develop a self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery system to improve the solubility and dermatological absorption of curcumin and naringin. Curcumin and naringin-loaded self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery system formulations were developed using aqueous phase titration. Phase diagrams were used to pinpoint the self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery system zones. Tween 80 and Labrasol (surfactants), Transcutol (cosurfactant), and cinnamon oil were chosen from a large pool of surfactants, cosurfactants, and oils based on their solubility and greatest nano-emulsion region. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, zeta sizer, and atomic force microscopy were used to characterize the optimized formulations and test for dilution and thermodynamic stability. The optimized curcumin-naringin-self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery system demonstrated the following characteristics: polydispersity index (0.412 ± 0.03), % transmittance (97%), particle size (212.5 ± 05 nm), zeta potential (- 25.7 ± 1.80 mV) and having a smooth and spherical droplet shape, as shown by atomic force microscopy. The ability of their combined formulation to cure wounds was tested in comparison to pure curcumin suspension, empty self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery system, and standard fusidic acid. Upon topical administration, the optimized curcumin-naringin-self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery system demonstrated significant wound healing activity in comparison with a pure curcumin suspension, empty self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery system, and standard fusidic acid. Based upon this result, we assume that skin penetration was increased by using the optimized curcumin-naringin-self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery system with enhanced solubility.

Beyond Skin Deep: Phospholipid-Based Nanovesicles as Game-Changers in Transdermal Drug Delivery

Transdermal administration techniques have gained popularity due to their advantages over oral and parenteral methods. Noninvasive, self-administered delivery devices improve patient compliance and control drug release. Transdermal delivery devices struggle with the skin's barrier function. Molecules over 500 Dalton (Da) and ionized compounds don't permeate through the skin. Drug encapsulation in phospholipid-based vesicular systems is the most effective skin delivery technique. Vesicular carriers include bi-layered liposomes, ultra-deformable liposomes, ethanolic liposomes, transethosomes, and invasomes. These technologies enhance skin drug permeation by increasing formula solubilization, partitioning into the skin, and fluidizing the lipid barrier. Phospholipid-based delivery systems are safe and efficient, making them a promising pharmaceutical and cosmeceutical drug delivery technique. Still, making delivery systems requires knowledge about the physicochemical properties of the drug and carrier, manufacturing and process variables, skin delivery mechanisms, technological advances, constraints, and regulatory requirements. Consequently, this review covers recent research achievements addressing the mentioned concerns.

In vitro and ex vivo evaluation of chitosan gel containing metformin-loaded polymeric nanoparticles for topical treatment of melanoma

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this study was to prepare and evaluate chitosan (CS) gel containing metformin hydrochloride (MET)-loaded polycaprolactone (PCL) nanoparticles (NPs) for topical treatment of melanoma.

SIGNIFICANCE

Topical administration of MET-PCL NPs-CS gel improves penetration of drug, decreases side effects, and increases efficacy of treatment.

METHODS

MET-PCL NPs were prepared by double emulsion method. Particle size, charge, encapsulation efficiency (EE), release, and morphology were evaluated. MET-PCL NPs-CS gel formulation was characterized in terms of organoleptic properties, pH, gelling time, viscosity, spreadability, release, and morphology. Cytotoxicity was performed on B16F10 cells. Ex vivo permeability was done with pig skin.

RESULTS

The size, charge, and EE were found to be 180 ± 10 nm, -11.4 mV, and 93%. SEM images showed that NPs were spherical and smooth. An initial burst release followed by a slower release was observed. MET-PCL NPs-CS gel was found to be transparent. The pH was 4.9 ± 0.05. The gelation time was 1.6 ± 0.2 min. The viscosity results confirm pseudoplastic behavior of gel. The spreadability by % area was 392 ± 6.4 cm. The images showed that gelling network of CS gel was composed of suspended NPs. The viscosity was between 554 and 3503 cP. MET-PCL NPs-CS gel showed prolonged release up to 72 h. On B16F10 cells, gel showed higher cytotoxicity compared to MET solution. MET-PCL NPs-CS gel had twofold higher permeability in pig skin compared with MET-CS gel.

CONCLUSION

Topical administration of MET-PCL NPs-CS gel into the skin resulted in improved dermal penetration and this promising approach may be of value in effective treatment of melanoma and other skin cancers.

Tioconazole-Loaded Transethosomal Gel Using Box-Behnken Design for Topical Applications: In Vitro, In Vivo, and Molecular Docking Approaches

Tioconazole (TCZ) is a broad-spectrum fungicidal BCS class II drug with reported activity against Candida albicans, dermatophytes, and certain Staphylococci bacteria. We report the use of TCZ-loaded transethosomes (TEs) to overcome the skin's barrier function. TCZ-loaded TEs were fabricated by using a cold method with slight modification. Box-Behnken composite design was utilized to investigate the effect of independent variables. The fabricated TEs were assessed with various physicochemical characterizations. The optimized formulation of TCZ-loaded TEs was incorporated into gel and evaluated for pH, conductivity, drug content, spreadability, rheology, in vitro permeation, ex vivo permeation, and in vitro and in vivo antifungal activity. The fabricated TCZ-loaded TEs had a % EE of 60.56 to 86.13, with particle sizes ranging from 219.1 to 757.1 nm. The SEM images showed spherically shaped vesicles. The % drug permeation was between 77.01 and 92.03. The kinetic analysis of all release profiles followed Higuchi's diffusion model. The FTIR, DSC, and XRD analysis showed no significant chemical interactions between the drug and excipients. A significantly higher antifungal activity was observed for TCZ-loaded transethosomal gel in comparison to the control. The in vivo antifungal study on albino rats indicated that TCZ-loaded transethosomal gel showed a comparable therapeutic effect in comparison to the market brand Canesten®. Molecular docking demonstrated that the TCZ in the TE composition was surrounded by hydrophobic excipients with increased overall hydrophobicity and better permeation. Therefore, TCZ in the form of transethosomal gel can serve as an effective drug delivery system, having the ability to penetrate the skin and overcome the stratum corneum barrier with improved efficacy.

Timolol-loaded ethosomes for ophthalmic delivery: Reduction of high intraocular pressure in vivo

The beta-adrenoceptor blocker timolol maleate (TML) is a commonly used pharmaceutical agent for the management of glaucoma. Conventional eye drops have limitations due to biological or pharmaceutical factors. Therefore, TML-loaded ethosomes have been designed to mitigate these restrictions and give a viable solution for reducing elevated intraocular pressure (IOP). The ethosomes were prepared using the thin film hydration method. Integrating the Box-Behnken experimental strategy, the optimal formulation was identified. The physicochemical characterization studies were performed on the optimal formulation. Then, in vitro release and ex vivo permeation studies were conducted. The irritation assessment was also carried out with Hen's Egg Test-Chorioallantoic Membrane model (HET-CAM), and in vivo evaluation of the IOP lowering effect was also performed on rats. The physicochemical characterization studies demonstrated that the components of the formulation were compatible with each other. The particle size, zeta potential, and encapsulation efficiency (EE%) were found as 88.23 ± 1.25 nm, -28.7 ± 2.03 mV, and 89.73 ± 0.42 %, respectively. The in vitro drug release mechanism was found as Korsmeyer-Peppas kinetics (R²=0.9923). The HET-CAM findings verified the formulation's eligibility for biological applications. The IOP measurements revealed no statistical difference (p>0.05) between the once-a-day application of the optimal formulation and the three-times-a-day application of the conventional eye drop. A similar pharmacological response was observed at lowered application frequencies. Therefore, it was concluded that the novel TML-loaded ethosomes could be a safe and efficient alternative for glaucoma treatment.

The deleterious effect of xylene-induced ear edema in rats: Protective role of dexketoprofen trometamol transdermal invasomes via inhibiting the oxidative stress/NF-κB/COX-2 pathway

Pain and inflammation could have a negative impact on a patient's quality of life and performance, causing them to sleep less. Dexketoprofen trometamol (DKT) is a water-soluble, nonselective NSAIDs. Because DKT is quickly eliminated in the urine after oral delivery, its efficacy is limited and must be taken repeatedly throughout the day. The main ambition of this work is to develop and characterize the potential of invasomes to enhance the transdermal transport of DKT to achieve efficient anti-inflammatory and pain management. The optimum formulation (C1) showed the least %RE (53.29 ± 2.68 %), the highest %EE (86.51 ± 1.05 %), and spherical nanosized vesicles (211.9 ± 0.57 nm) with (PDI) of 0.353 ± 0.01 and (ZP) of -19.15 ± 2.45 mV. DKT flux and deposition in stratum corneum, epidermal, and dermal skin layers were significantly augmented by 2.6 and 3.51 folds, respectively, from the optimum invasomal gel formulation (C1-G) compared to DKT conventional gel (DKT-G). The anti-inflammatory activity of C1-G was evaluated using a model of xylene-induced ear edema in rats. Xylene exposure upregulated the ear expression of COX-2 level and MPO activity. Xylene also significantly increased the ear NF-κB p65, TNF-α, IL-Iβ, and MDA levels. Furthermore, xylene induced oxidative stress, as evidenced by a significant decrease in ear GSH and serum TAC levels. These impacts were drastically improved by applying C1-G compared to rats that received DKT-G and plain invasomal gel formulation (plain C1-G). The histopathological findings imparted substantiation to the biochemical and molecular investigations. Thereby, C1-G could be a promising transdermal drug delivery system to improve the anti-inflammatory and pain management of DKT.

Whitening effect of kojic acid dipalmitate loaded nanosized ethosomal gel for the treatment of hyperpigmentation: In vitro and in vivo characterization

BACKGROUND

In recent years, the demands of depigmenting agents in cosmetics have been increased to treat skin conditions such as hyperpigmentation and melasma. Tyrosinase is a major enzyme involve in hyperpigmentation. Kojic acid dipalimate (KAD) is an ester derivative of kojic acid and exhibit excellent tyrosinase inhibiting activity on human skin.

OBJECTIVE

To develop and characterize a novel topical delivery system for KAD by using ethosomes and their in vitro, in vivo characterization for the treatment of hyperpigmentation.

METHODS

Different KAD loaded ethosomal suspensions were prepared using soy phosphatidylcholine, ethanol, propylene glycol, and water with cold method. These formulations were evaluated for size, zeta potential, Polydispersity index, entrapment efficiency, FTIR spectroscopy, and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Afterward, the stability of optimized gel was checked and the in vivo studies were carried out in order to evaluate the skin benefits.

RESULTS

The optimized formulation has zeta potential, size, and entrapment efficiency of -23.4 mV, 148 nm, and 90.0008%, respectively. SEM results showed vesicles were spherical in shape. Ethosomal gel had a good stability at lower temperature (8, 25°C). In addition, ethosomal gel gives significant decrease in skin melanin, erythema, and sebum level while it causes improvement in skin hydration level and elasticity during non-invasive in vivo studies.

CONCLUSION

The overall findings indicated that the prepared KAD loaded ethosomal formulation was stable and provides deep penetration of KAD into the skin. It offers a promising therapeutic approach for use in skin hyperpigmentation as it has skin whitening and moisturizing effects.

Azelaic acid and Melaleuca alternifolia essential oil co-loaded vesicular carrier for combinational therapy of acne

Aim: Azelaic acid (AzA), a comedolytic, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory anti-melanogenic agent, prescribed against acne vulgaris is safe on skin. Its combination with another widely used anti-acne agent, tea tree oil (EO) whose delivery is limited by volatility, instability and lipophilicity constraints was attempted. Method: Solvent injection was used to prepare AzA-EO integrated ethosomes. Result: Ethosomes were transformed into carbopol hydrogel, which exhibited pseudo-plastic properties with appreciable firmness, work of shear, stickiness and work of adhesion. The hydrogel showed better permeation and retention characteristics vis-a-vis commercial formulation (AzidermTM), when evaluated in Wistar rat skin. Further, ethosome hydrogel composite was better tolerated with no side effects. Conclusion: The findings suggests that the aforementioned strategy could be a potential treatment used for acne management.

Formulation and design optimization of nano-transferosomes using pioglitazone and eprosartan mesylate for concomitant therapy against diabetes and hypertension

Hypertension, a form of cardiovascular diseases, is considered a major risk factor associated with deaths in type 2 diabetes patients. The current medication systems for treating such chronic coexisting diseases are limited and challenging due to the difficulties in overcoming the side effects from complex therapeutic and treatment regimen. The objective of the present study is to design and optimize pioglitazone (PIO) and eprosartan mesylate (EM)-loaded nano-transferosomes (NTs) using Design-Expert software, aiming its transdermal delivery as a novel combination therapy for concomitant treatment of hypertensive diabetic patients. The developed formulations were characterized for various parameters, including in-vitro skin permeation, skin irritation, in-vivo antidiabetic, and antihypertensive activities. NTs were prepared using PIO and EM as the two model drugs and optimized using Box-Behnken design by considering phospholipid (X1), surfactant (X2), ratio of solvents (X3), and sonication time (X4), as independent variables, each at three levels. Entrapment efficiency (Y1 and Y2) and flux (Y3 and Y4) of PIO and EM, respectively, were selected as dependent variables. Among all the prepared formulations, one optimized formulation was chosen by the point prediction method and evaluated for drug-polymer compatibility, particle size, and surface charge analysis, followed by skin permeation and pharmacodynamic studies. The optimized nano-transferosomal gel (ONTF) showed all responses which confirm with the values predicted by the design. Pharmacodynamic studies showed improved and prolonged management of diabetes and hypertension in Wistar rats after the ONTF was applied, compared to oral and drug-loaded NT formulations. Results of the current study suggest that the development of such combinational delivery system can result in a rational therapeutic regimen for effective treatment of concomitant disease conditions of diabetic hypertensive patients.

Design and optimization of nano invasomal gel of Glibenclamide and Atenolol combination: in vitro and in vivo evaluation

Background

There are many circumstances where chronic disease is associated with other disorders, especially in diseases such as diabetes with noncommunicable disease risk factors, such as hypertension. The current therapies for treating such chronic comorbid diseases are limited and challenging due to the difficulties in overcoming the side effects from complex therapeutic treatment regimen. The present study is aimed to develop and optimize the combinational nano invasomal gel of Glibenclamide (GLB) and Atenolol (ATN) as a novel combination therapy for comorbid treatment of diabetic hypertensive patients. The developed formulations were characterized for various parameters, including in-vitro skin permeation, skin irritation, in-vivo antidiabetic, and antihypertensive activities.

Results

OCNIG showed that the % entrapment efficiency of GLB is 96.67 ± 0.65% and % entrapment efficiency of ATN is 93.76 ± 0.89%, flux of GLB (240.43 ± 1.76 μg/cm2/h), and flux of ATN (475.2 ± 1.54 μg/cm2/h) which was found to conform to the expected value. The results indicated desired release and permeation profiles. Optimized formulation showed significant pharmacokinetic properties, which shows improvement in bioavailability by 134.30% and 180.32% respectively for two drugs, when compared to marketed oral preparation. Pharmacodynamic studies showed improved and prolonged management of diabetes and hypertension in Wistar rats, compared to oral and drug-loaded nano invasomes formulations.

Conclusion

Overall, the results showed that nano invasomal gel was found to be a useful and promising transdermal delivery system for the treatment of concurrent diseases.

Topical Nano-Vesicular Spanlastics of Celecoxib: Enhanced Anti-Inflammatory Effect and Down-Regulation of TNF-α, NF-кB and COX-2 in Complete Freund's Adjuvant-Induced Arthritis Model in Rats

BACKGROUND

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is an autoimmune disease that underlies chronic inflammation of the synovial membrane. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are commonly used to treat RA. However, a long list of adverse events associated with long-term treatment regimens with NSAIDs negatively influences patient compliance and therapeutic outcomes.

AIM

The aim of this work was to achieve site-specific delivery of celecoxib-loaded spanlastic nano-vesicle-based delivery system to the inflamed joints, avoiding systemic administration of large doses.

METHODOLOGY

To develop spanlastic nanovesicles for transdermal delivery of celecoxib, modified injection method was adopted using Tween 80 or Brij as edge activators. Entrapment efficiency, vesicle size, ex vivo permeation, and morphology of the prepared nano-vesicles were characterized. Carbopol-based gels containing the selected formulations were prepared, and their clarity, pH, rheological performance, and ex vivo permeation were characterized. Celecoxib-loaded niosomes and noisome-containing gels were developed for comparison. The in vivo efficacy of the selected formulations was evaluated in a rat model of Freund's complete adjuvant-induced arthritis. Different inflammatory markers including TNF-α, NF-кB and COX-2 were assessed in paw tissue before and after treatment.

RESULTS

The size and entrapment efficiency of the selected spanlastic nano-vesicle formulation were 112.5 ± 3.6 nm, and 83.6 ± 2.3%, respectively. This formulation has shown the highest transdermal flux and permeability coefficient compared to the other investigated formulations. The spanlastics-containing gel of celecoxib has shown transdermal flux of 6.9 ± 0.25 µg/cm2/hr while the celecoxib niosomes-containing gel and unprocessed celecoxib-loaded gel have shown 5.2 ± 0.12 µg/cm2/hr and 0.64 ± 0.09 µg/cm2/hr, respectively. In the animal model of RA, the celecoxib-loaded spanlastics-containing gel significantly reduced edema circumference and significantly suppressed TNF-α, NF-кB and COX-2 levels compared to the niosomes-containing gel, the marketed diclofenac sodium gel, and unprocessed celecoxib-loaded gel.

CONCLUSION

The spanlastic nano-vesicle-containing gel represents a more efficient site-specific treatment for topical treatment of chronic inflammation like RA, compared to commercial and other conventional alternatives.

Quality by design (Qbd) assisted development of phytosomal gel of aloe vera extract for topical delivery

The aim of the current study was to develop the phytosomal gel of aloe vera extract for improved topical delivery. Aloe vera extract loaded phytosomal system was developed by fixing the amount of aloe vera extract and ethanol and by varying the concentration of lecithin (0.15-0.25% w/v) and speed of rotation (80-120 rpm). Different formulation batches were prepared as per the Design expert software. A 2² Factorial design was applied to optimize the formulation on the basis of vesicular size and entrapment efficiency. Developed formulations were evaluated for vesicular size, entrapment efficiency, PDI, zeta potential and in-vitro release. Further stability studies were also performed. For the optimized formulation (F09), vesicular size, entrapment efficiency and PDI were found as 123.1 ± 1.44 nm, 95.67 ± 0.27% and 0.98 ± 0.06. Zeta potential of -11.9 mV and drug release of 56.91 ± 4.1% obtained in 24 h. Drug release kinetics from the phytosomes follows Higuchi model. TEM micrograph confirms the uniform structure of phytosomes. Phytosomal gel of optimized phytosomal formulation (F09) was developed with 1% Carbopol 934 and physically characterized on the basis of pH, viscosity, homogeneity and drug content. Ex-vivo permeation study showed the better permeation and flux profile of phytosomal gel with the conventional aloe vera extract gel. Also, studies on phytosomal formulation and gel showed stability up-to 3 months. Thus overall, it can be concluded that the phytosomal gel is a good carrier for topical delivery of herbal extract such as aloe vera.

Transdermal delivery of raloxifene HCl via ethosomal system: Formulation, advanced characterizations and pharmacokinetic evaluation

Raloxifene HCl belongs to a class of selective estrogen receptor modulators (SERMs) which is used for the management of breast cancer. The major problem reported with raloxifene is its poor bioavailability which is only up to 2%. The main objective of the present work was to formulate raloxifene loaded ethosomal preparation for transdermal application and compare it with an oral formulation of the drug. Five ethosomal formulations with different concentrations of ethanol and a conventional liposomes formulation were prepared by rotary evaporation method. The prepared systems were characterised by high resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM), force emission electron microscopy (FESEM), atomic force microscopy (AFM), X-ray diffraction (XRD) and ³¹P NMR study. All these advanced characterization study established that the ethosome formulation was well defined by its size, shape and its bilayer formation. Transdermal flux of the optimized ethosome formulation was 22.14 ± 0.83 µg/ml/cm² which was 21 times higher when compared to the conventional liposomes. Confocal microscopy study revealed an enhanced permeation of coumarin-6 dye loaded ethosomes to much deeper layers of skin when compared with conventional liposomes. The gel was found to be pseudoplastic with elastic behaviour. In-vivo studies on rats showed a higher bioavailability of RXL (157% times) for ethosomal formulation when compared with the oral formulation. In conclusion, RXL loaded ethosomal formulation via transdermal route showed superior drug delivery properties as compared to oral formulation.

Enhanced transdermal delivery of ondansetron using nanovesicular systems: Fabrication, characterization, optimization and ex-vivo permeation study-Box-Cox transformation practical example

This study aimed to formulate suitable nanovesicles (NVs) for transdermal delivery of Ondansetron. It also illustrated a practical example for the importance of Box-Cox transformation. A 2³ full factorial design was used to enable testing transfersomes, ethosomes, and transethosomes of Ondansetron simultaneously. The independent variables (IVs) studied were sodium taurocholate amount, ethanol volume in hydration medium and sonication time. The studied dependent variables (DVs) were: particle size (PS), zeta potential (ZP) and entrapment efficiency (EE). Polynomial equations were used to study the influence of IVs on each DV. Numerical multiple response optimization was applied to select an optimized formula (OF) with the goals of minimizing PS and maximizing ZP absolute value and EE. Box-Cox transformation was adopted to enable modeling PS raised to the power of 1.2 with an excellent prediction R² of 1.000. ZP and EE were adequately represented directly with prediction R² of 0.9549 and 0.9892 respectively. Response surface plots helped in explaining the influence of IVs on each DV. Two-sided 95% prediction interval test and percent deviation of actual values from predicted ones proved the validity of the elucidated models. The OF was a transfersomal formula with desirability of 0.866 and showed promising results in ex-vivo permeation study.