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Metabolomics Analysis of Viral Therapeutics. Methods Mol Biol 2021. [PMID: 33108663 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-1012-1_10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/08/2023]
Abstract
Virotherapy, enabled by recent advances in the transdisciplinary field of biotechnology, has emerged as a powerful tool for use in anticancer treatment, gene therapy, immunotherapy, etc. Examining the effects of viruses and virus-derived immune-modulating therapeutics is of great fundamental and clinical interest. Here we describe a sample preparation protocol for metabolite extraction from virus-infected tissue, in addition to liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry conditions essential for subsequent analysis. This metabolomics approach delivers highly sensitive and specific metabolite information on various biospecimens. Such an approach may be adopted to monitor biological changes in over 30 relevant metabolic pathways in response to viral infection and also viral therapeutics.
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Intracellular Pathogens: Host Immunity and Microbial Persistence Strategies. J Immunol Res 2019; 2019:1356540. [PMID: 31111075 PMCID: PMC6487120 DOI: 10.1155/2019/1356540] [Citation(s) in RCA: 170] [Impact Index Per Article: 34.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2018] [Revised: 03/15/2019] [Accepted: 04/02/2019] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Infectious diseases caused by pathogens including viruses, bacteria, fungi, and parasites are ranked as the second leading cause of death worldwide by the World Health Organization. Despite tremendous improvements in global public health since 1950, a number of challenges remain to either prevent or eradicate infectious diseases. Many pathogens can cause acute infections that are effectively cleared by the host immunity, but a subcategory of these pathogens called "intracellular pathogens" can establish persistent and sometimes lifelong infections. Several of these intracellular pathogens manage to evade the host immune monitoring and cause disease by replicating inside the host cells. These pathogens have evolved diverse immune escape strategies and overcome immune responses by residing and multiplying inside host immune cells, primarily macrophages. While these intracellular pathogens that cause persistent infections are phylogenetically diverse and engage in diverse immune evasion and persistence strategies, they share common pathogen type-specific mechanisms during host-pathogen interaction inside host cells. Likewise, the host immune system is also equipped with a diverse range of effector functions to fight against the establishment of pathogen persistence and subsequent host damage. This article provides an overview of the immune effector functions used by the host to counter pathogens and various persistence strategies used by intracellular pathogens to counter host immunity, which enables their extended period of colonization in the host. The improved understanding of persistent intracellular pathogen-derived infections will contribute to develop improved disease diagnostics, therapeutics, and prophylactics.
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Wyganowska-Świątkowska M, Tarnowski M, Murtagh D, Skrzypczak-Jankun E, Jankun J. Proteolysis is the most fundamental property of malignancy and its inhibition may be used therapeutically (Review). Int J Mol Med 2018; 43:15-25. [PMID: 30431071 PMCID: PMC6257838 DOI: 10.3892/ijmm.2018.3983] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2018] [Accepted: 09/06/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The mortality rates of cancer patients decreased by ~1.5% per year between 2001 and 2015, although the decrease depends on patient sex, ethnic group and type of malignancy. Cancer remains a significant global health problem, requiring a search for novel treatments. The most common property of malignant tumors is their capacity to invade adjacent tissue and to metastasize, and this cancer aggressiveness is contingent on overexpression of proteolytic enzymes. The components of the plasminogen activation system (PAS) and the metal-loproteinase family [mainly matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs)] are overexpressed in malignant tumors, driving the local invasion, metastasis and angiogenesis. This is the case for numerous types of cancer, such as breast, colon, prostate and oral carcinoma, among others. Present chemotherapeutics agents typically attack all dividing cells; however, for future therapeutic agents to be clinically successful, they need to be highly selective for a specific protein(s) and act on the cancerous tissues without adverse systemic effects. Inhibition of proteolysis in cancerous tissue has the ability to attenuate tumor invasion, angiogenesis and migration. For that purpose, inhibiting both PAS and MMPs may be another approach, since the two groups of enzymes are overexpressed in cancer. In the present review, the roles and new findings on PAS and MMP families in cancer formation, growth and possible treatments are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Daniel Murtagh
- Urology Research Center, Department of Urology, Health Science Campus, The University of Toledo, Toledo, OH 43614‑2598, USA
| | - Ewa Skrzypczak-Jankun
- Urology Research Center, Department of Urology, Health Science Campus, The University of Toledo, Toledo, OH 43614‑2598, USA
| | - Jerzy Jankun
- Urology Research Center, Department of Urology, Health Science Campus, The University of Toledo, Toledo, OH 43614‑2598, USA
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Bao J, Pan G, Poncz M, Wei J, Ran M, Zhou Z. Serpin functions in host-pathogen interactions. PeerJ 2018; 6:e4557. [PMID: 29632742 PMCID: PMC5889911 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.4557] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2018] [Accepted: 03/09/2018] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Serpins are a broadly distributed superfamily of protease inhibitors that are present in all kingdoms of life. The acronym, serpin, is derived from their function as potent serine proteases inhibitors. Early studies of serpins focused on their functions in haemostasis since modulating serine proteases activities are essential for coagulation. Additional research has revealed that serpins function in infection and inflammation, by modulating serine and cysteine proteases activities. The aim of this review is to summarize the accumulating findings and current understanding of the functions of serpins in host-pathogen interactions, serving as host defense proteins as well as pathogenic factors. We also discuss the potential crosstalk between host and pathogen serpins. We anticipate that future research will elucidate the therapeutic value of this novel target.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jialing Bao
- State Key Laboratory of Silkworm Genome Biology, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
| | - Guoqing Pan
- State Key Laboratory of Silkworm Genome Biology, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
| | - Mortimer Poncz
- Department of Pediatrics, The Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States of America.,Division of Pediatrics, The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, United States of America
| | - Junhong Wei
- State Key Laboratory of Silkworm Genome Biology, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
| | - Maoshuang Ran
- State Key Laboratory of Silkworm Genome Biology, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
| | - Zeyang Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Silkworm Genome Biology, Southwest University, Chongqing, China.,College of Life Sciences, Chongqing Normal University, Chongqing, China
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Beaudoin S, Paquette M, Fafard-Couture L, Tremblay MA, Lecomte R, Guérin B, Leyton JV. Initial Evaluation of Antibody-conjugates Modified with Viral-derived Peptides for Increasing Cellular Accumulation and Improving Tumor Targeting. J Vis Exp 2018. [PMID: 29578523 DOI: 10.3791/55440] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Antibody-conjugates (ACs) modified with virus-derived peptides are a potentially powerful class of tumor cell delivery agents for molecular payloads used in cancer treatment and imaging due to increased cellular accumulation over current ACs. During early AC in vitro development, fluorescence techniques and radioimmunoassays are sufficient for determining intracellular localization, accumulation efficiency, and target cell specificity. Currently, there is no consensus on standardized methods for preparing cells for evaluating AC intracellular accumulation and localization. The initial testing of ACs modified with virus-derived peptides is critical especially if several candidates have been constructed. Determining intracellular accumulation by fluorescence can be affected by background signal from ACs at the cell surface and complicate the interpretation of accumulation. For radioimmunoassays, typically treated cells are fractionated and the radioactivity in different cell compartments measured. However, cell lysis varies from cell to cell and often nuclear and cytoplasmic compartments are not adequately isolated. This can produce misleading data on payload delivery properties. The intravenous injection of radiolabeled virus-derived peptide-modified ACs in tumor bearing mice followed by radionuclide imaging is a powerful method for determining tumor targeting and payload delivery properties at the in vivo phase of development. However, this is a relatively recent advancement and few groups have evaluated virus-derived peptide-modified ACs in this manner. We describe the processing of treated cells to more accurately evaluate virus-derived peptide-modified AC accumulation when using confocal microscopy and radioimmunoassays. Specifically, a method for trypsinizing cells to remove cell surface bound ACs. We also provide a method for improving cellular fractionation. Lastly, this protocol provides an in vivo method using positron emission tomography (PET) for evaluating initial tumor targeting properties in tumor-bearing mice. We use the radioisotope 64Cu (t1/2 = 12.7 h) as an example payload in this protocol.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon Beaudoin
- Department of Nuclear Medicine and Radiobiology, Université de Sherbrooke
| | - Michel Paquette
- Department of Nuclear Medicine and Radiobiology, Université de Sherbrooke
| | | | - Mylene A Tremblay
- Department of Nuclear Medicine and Radiobiology, Université de Sherbrooke
| | - Roger Lecomte
- Department of Nuclear Medicine and Radiobiology, Université de Sherbrooke; Sherbrooke Molecular Imaging Center (CIMS), Université de Sherbrooke; Sherbrooke Institute of Pharmacology
| | - Brigitte Guérin
- Department of Nuclear Medicine and Radiobiology, Université de Sherbrooke; Sherbrooke Molecular Imaging Center (CIMS), Université de Sherbrooke; Sherbrooke Institute of Pharmacology
| | - Jeffrey V Leyton
- Department of Nuclear Medicine and Radiobiology, Université de Sherbrooke; Sherbrooke Molecular Imaging Center (CIMS), Université de Sherbrooke; Sherbrooke Institute of Pharmacology;
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Paquette M, Beaudoin S, Tremblay MA, Jean S, Lopez AF, Lecomte R, Guérin B, Bentourkia M, Sabbagh R, Leyton JV. NLS-Cholic Acid Conjugation to IL-5Rα-Specific Antibody Improves Cellular Accumulation and In Vivo Tumor-Targeting Properties in a Bladder Cancer Model. Bioconjug Chem 2018; 29:1352-1363. [PMID: 29433309 DOI: 10.1021/acs.bioconjchem.8b00077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Receptor-mediated internalization followed by trafficking and degradation of antibody-conjugates (ACs) via the endosomal-lysosomal pathway is the major mechanism for delivering molecular payloads inside target tumor cells. Although a mainstay for delivering payloads with clinically approved ACs in cancer treatment and imaging, tumor cells are often able to decrease intracellular payload concentrations and thereby reduce the effectiveness of the desired application. Thus, increasing payload intracellular accumulation has become a focus of attention for designing next-generation ACs. We developed a composite compound (ChAcNLS) that enables ACs to escape endosome entrapment and route to the nucleus resulting in the increased intracellular accumulation as an interleukin-5 receptor α-subunit (IL-5Rα)-targeted agent for muscle invasive bladder cancer (MIBC). We constructed 64Cu-A14-ChAcNLS, 64Cu-A14-NLS, and 64Cu-A14 and evaluated their performance by employing mechanistic studies for endosome escape coupled to nuclear routing and determining whether this delivery system results in improved 64Cu cellular accumulation. ACs consisting of ∼20 ChAcNLS or NLS moieties per 64Cu-A14 were prepared in good yield, high monomer content, and maintaining high affinity for IL-5Rα. Confocal microscopy analysis demonstrated ChAcNLS mediated efficient endosome escape and nuclear localization. 64Cu-A14-ChAcNLS increased 64Cu cellular accumulation in HT-1376 and HT-B9 cells relative to 64Cu-A14 and 64Cu-A14-NLS. In addition, we tested 64Cu-A14-ChAcNLS in vivo to evaluate its tissue distribution properties and, ultimately, tumor uptake and targeting. A model of human IL-5Rα MIBC was developed by implanting NOD/SCID mice with subcutaneous HT-1376 or HT-B9MIBC tumors, which grow containing high and low IL-5Rα-positive tumor cell densities, respectively. ACs were intravenously injected, and daily blood sampling, biodistribution at 48 and 96 h, and positron emission tomography (PET) at 24 and 48 h were performed. Region of interest (ROI) analysis was also performed on reconstructed PET images. Pharmacokinetic analysis and biodistribution studies showed that 64Cu-A14-ChAcNLS had faster clearance rates from the blood and healthy organs relative to 64Cu-A14. However, 64Cu-A14-ChAcNLS maintained comparable tumor accumulation relative to 64Cu-A14. This resulted in 64Cu-A14-ChAcNLS having superior tumor/normal tissue ratios at both 48 and 96 h biodistribution time points. Visualization of AC distribution by PET and ROI analysis confirmed that 64Cu-A14-ChAcNLS had improved targeting of MIBC tumor relative to 64Cu-A14. In addition, 64Cu-A14 modified with only NLS had poor tumor targeting. This was a result of poor tumor uptake due to extremely rapid clearance. Thus, the overall findings in this model of human IL-5Rα-positive MIBC describe an endosome escape-nuclear localization cholic-acid-linked peptide that substantially enhances AC cellular accumulation and tumor targeting.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Angel F Lopez
- The Centre for Cancer Biology, SA Pathology , The University of South Australia , Frome Road , Adelaide , South Australia 5000 , Australia
| | - Roger Lecomte
- Sherbrooke Molecular Imaging Centre (CIMS), Centre de Recherche du CHUS , UdeS , 3001 12 Avenue Nord , Sherbrooke , Québec J1H 5N4 , Canada.,Sherbrooke Pharmacology Institute , 3001 12 Avenue Nord , Sherbrooke , Québec J1H 5N4 , Canada
| | - Brigitte Guérin
- Sherbrooke Molecular Imaging Centre (CIMS), Centre de Recherche du CHUS , UdeS , 3001 12 Avenue Nord , Sherbrooke , Québec J1H 5N4 , Canada.,Sherbrooke Pharmacology Institute , 3001 12 Avenue Nord , Sherbrooke , Québec J1H 5N4 , Canada
| | - M'hamed Bentourkia
- Sherbrooke Molecular Imaging Centre (CIMS), Centre de Recherche du CHUS , UdeS , 3001 12 Avenue Nord , Sherbrooke , Québec J1H 5N4 , Canada.,Sherbrooke Pharmacology Institute , 3001 12 Avenue Nord , Sherbrooke , Québec J1H 5N4 , Canada
| | | | - Jeffrey V Leyton
- Sherbrooke Molecular Imaging Centre (CIMS), Centre de Recherche du CHUS , UdeS , 3001 12 Avenue Nord , Sherbrooke , Québec J1H 5N4 , Canada.,Sherbrooke Pharmacology Institute , 3001 12 Avenue Nord , Sherbrooke , Québec J1H 5N4 , Canada
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Identification of Novel Short C-Terminal Transcripts of Human SERPINA1 Gene. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0170533. [PMID: 28107454 PMCID: PMC5249162 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0170533] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2016] [Accepted: 01/05/2017] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Human SERPINA1 gene is located on chromosome 14q31-32.3 and is organized into three (IA, IB, and IC) non-coding and four (II, III, IV, V) coding exons. This gene produces α1-antitrypsin (A1AT), a prototypical member of the serpin superfamily of proteins. We demonstrate that human peripheral blood leukocytes express not only a product corresponding to the transcript coding for the full-length A1AT protein but also two short transcripts (ST1C4 and ST1C5) of A1AT. In silico sequence analysis revealed that the last exon of the short transcripts contains an Open Reading Frame (ORF) and thus putatively can produce peptides. We found ST1C4 expression across different human tissues whereas ST1C5 was mainly restricted to leukocytes, specifically neutrophils. A high up-regulation (10-fold) of short transcripts was observed in isolated human blood neutrophils after activation with lipopolysaccharide. Parallel analyses by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry identified peptides corresponding to C-terminal region of A1AT in supernatants of activated but not naïve neutrophils. Herein we report for the first time a tissue specific expression and regulation of short transcripts of SERPINA1 gene, and the presence of C-terminal peptides in supernatants from activated neutrophils, in vitro. This gives a novel insight into the studies on the transcription of SERPINA1 gene.
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8
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Mechanisms of immunomodulation by mammalian and viral decoy receptors: insights from structures. Nat Rev Immunol 2016; 17:112-129. [PMID: 28028310 DOI: 10.1038/nri.2016.134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Immune responses are regulated by effector cytokines and chemokines that signal through cell surface receptors. Mammalian decoy receptors - which are typically soluble or inactive versions of cell surface receptors or soluble protein modules termed binding proteins - modulate and antagonize signalling by canonical effector-receptor complexes. Viruses have developed a diverse array of molecular decoys to evade host immune responses; these include viral homologues of host cytokines, chemokines and chemokine receptors; variants of host receptors with new functions; and novel decoy receptors that do not have host counterparts. Over the past decade, the number of known mammalian and viral decoy receptors has increased considerably, yet a comprehensive curation of the corresponding structure-mechanism relationships has not been carried out. In this Review, we provide a comprehensive resource on this topic with a view to better understanding the roles and evolutionary relationships of mammalian and viral decoy receptors, and the opportunities for leveraging their therapeutic potential.
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Epstein-Barr Virus BZLF1-Mediated Downregulation of Proinflammatory Factors Is Essential for Optimal Lytic Viral Replication. J Virol 2015; 90:887-903. [PMID: 26537683 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01921-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2015] [Accepted: 10/19/2015] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED Elevated secretion of inflammatory factors is associated with latent Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection and the pathology of EBV-associated diseases; however, knowledge of the inflammatory response and its biological significance during the lytic EBV cycle remains elusive. Here, we demonstrate that the immediate early transcriptional activator BZLF1 suppresses the proinflammatory factor tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) by binding to the promoter of TNF-α and preventing NF-κB activation. A BZLF1Δ207-210 mutant with a deletion of 4 amino acids (aa) in the protein-protein binding domain was not able to inhibit the proinflammatory factors TNF-α and gamma interferon (IFN-γ) and reduced viral DNA replication with complete transcriptional activity during EBV lytic gene expression. TNF-α depletion restored the viral replication mediated by BZLF1Δ207-210. Furthermore, a combination of TNF-α- and IFN-γ-neutralizing antibodies recovered BZLF1Δ207-210-mediated viral replication, indicating that BZLF1 attenuates the antiviral response to aid optimal lytic replication primarily through the inhibition of TNF-α and IFN-γ secretion during the lytic cycle. These results suggest that EBV BZLF1 attenuates the proinflammatory responses to facilitate viral replication. IMPORTANCE The proinflammatory response is an antiviral and anticancer strategy following the complex inflammatory phenotype. Latent Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection strongly correlates with an elevated secretion of inflammatory factors in a variety of severe diseases, while the inflammatory responses during the lytic EBV cycle have not been established. Here, we demonstrate that BZLF1 acts as a transcriptional suppressor of the inflammatory factors TNF-α and IFN-γ and confirm that BZLF1-facilitated escape from the TNF-α and IFN-γ response during the EBV lytic life cycle is required for optimal viral replication. This finding implies that the EBV lytic cycle employs a distinct strategy to evade the antiviral inflammatory response.
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Rohrmann GF, Erlandson MA, Theilmann DA. The genome of a baculovirus isolated from Hemileuca sp. encodes a serpin ortholog. Virus Genes 2013; 47:357-64. [PMID: 23852342 DOI: 10.1007/s11262-013-0951-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2013] [Accepted: 06/28/2013] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The genome sequence of a baculovirus from Hemileuca sp. was determined. The genome is 140,633 kb, has a G+C content of 38.1 %, and encodes 137 putative open-reading frames over 50 amino acids. 126 of these ORFs showed similarity to other baculovirus genes in the database including all 37 core genes. Of the remaining 11 predicted genes, one is related to a lepidopteran serpin gene. This is the first report of a baculovirus encoding a member of this family of serine protease inhibitors, and to our knowledge the first report of a viral serpin outside the Poxviridae. The genome also contained three homologous repeat sequences. Phylogenetic analysis indicated that the virus is a group II Alphabaculovirus and belongs to a lineage that includes Orgyia leucostigma, Ectropis obliqua, Apocheima cinerarium, and Euproctis pseudoconspersa nucleopolyhedroviruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- George F Rohrmann
- Department of Microbiology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, 97331-3804, USA,
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11
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Wang W, Gu F, Wei C, Tang Y, Zheng X, Ren M, Qin Y. PGPIPN, a therapeutic hexapeptide, suppressed human ovarian cancer growth by targeting BCL2. PLoS One 2013; 8:e60701. [PMID: 23593287 PMCID: PMC3622516 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0060701] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2012] [Accepted: 03/01/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Bioactive peptides, either derived from nature resources or synthesized by rational design, have been demonstrated potential for therapeutic agents against numerous human diseases, including cancer. However, the mechanism of therapeutic peptides against cancer has not been well elucidated. Here we show that PGPIPN, a hexapeptide derived from bovine β-casein, inhibited the proliferation of human ovarian cancer cells line SKOV(3) as well as the primary ovarian cancer cells in vitro. Consistently, PGPIPIN also decreased tumor growth rate in xenograft ovarian cancer model mice in a dose-dependent manner. Further study demonstrated that the anti-tumor effect of PGPIPN is partially through promoting cell apoptosis by inhibiting BCL2 pathway. Thus, our study suggests that PGPIPN is a potential therapeutic agent for the treatment of ovarian cancer or other types of cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Wang
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, Anhui Medical University, Heifei, Anhui, China
| | - Fang Gu
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, Anhui Medical University, Heifei, Anhui, China
| | - Cai Wei
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, Anhui Medical University, Heifei, Anhui, China
| | - Yigui Tang
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, Anhui Medical University, Heifei, Anhui, China
| | - Xin Zheng
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, Anhui Medical University, Heifei, Anhui, China
| | - Mingqiang Ren
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, Anhui Medical University, Heifei, Anhui, China
- Georgia Health Sciences University Cancer Center, Augusta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Yide Qin
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, Anhui Medical University, Heifei, Anhui, China
- * E-mail:
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