Mutagen X and chlorinated tap water are recombinagenic in yeast

DNA damage by genotoxic hydroxyhalofuranones: an in silico approach to MX

MX (3-chloro-4-(dichloromethyl)-5-hydroxy-2(5H)-furanone), a disinfection byproduct present in chlorinated drinking water, is one of the most potent mutagens known. Whereas its genotoxic effects are well documented, the mechanism by which MX exerts such an intense biological effect is still unclear. To gain further insight into both the general reactivity of hydroxyhalofuranones, and especially as regards their genotoxicity, here we report an in silico study of the aqueous reactivity of MX and two less powerful analogues (MXY, in general): (3-chloro-4-(chloromethyl)-5-hydroxy-2(5H)-furanone -CMCF- and 3-chloro-4-(methyl)-5-hydroxy-2(5H)-furanone -MCF-). The following aspects were investigated: (i) the acid dissociation and isomerization equilibria of MXY, i.e. the species distribution among the possible isomers; (ii) the one-electron reduction potential of MXY; (iii) the guanosine and adenosine alkylation mechanism by MXY, which leads to covalent-DNA adducts; and (iv) the redox properties of the adducts. No significant differences were observed between MCF, CMCF, and MX, with a single exception: the unimolecular carbon-chlorine cleavage of some MX-nucleotide adducts may afford highly oxidative intermediates, which could be able to remove an electron from contiguous nucleotides directly, especially guanosine. This reaction would provide a pathway for the hypothesized ability of some hydroxyhalofuranones to oxidize DNA.

Change of genotoxicity for raw and finished water: role of purification processes

In China, the safety of drinking water becomes a significant issue due to serious aquatic environmental pollution. The genotoxic levels of raw and finished water from seven typical waterworks located in the five basins in China were then evaluated using umu test. Effect of conventional treatment processes (coagulation, filtration and disinfection) on the genotoxicity and the fate of dissolved organic matter (DOM) was discussed. The results showed that most of the selected finished water presented genotoxicity at or lower than 300 mL water sample exposure dose. The genotoxic effects of finished water were significantly higher than those of raw water. It also exhibited that there existed higher correlation between genotoxic effect and Br(-) than the other water quality parameters. The brominated trihalomethanes played a more important role in finished water genotoxicity than brominated haloacetic acids. The treatment processes could increase the genotoxic effects of finished water, especially for the chlorination treatment. The fluorescence spectra and high performance size-exclusion chromatogram analysis of DOM characters indicated that the proportion of low molecular weight acids, nitrogen containing aromatics, proteinaceous and microbially derived organic matters (200-300 Da) increased during purification processes, which indicated probably the release or formation of drinking water genotoxins.

Carcinogenicity of the chlorination disinfection by-product MX

3-Chloro-4-(dichloromethyl)-5-hydroxy-2(5H)-furanone, better known by its historical name 'mutagen X' or MX, is a chlorination disinfection byproduct that forms from the reaction of chlorine and humic acids in raw water. MX has been measured in drinking water samples in several countries at levels that ranged from non-detectable to 310 ng/L. Although the concentration of MX in drinking water is typically 100- to 1000-fold lower than other common chlorinated by-products of concern (e.g., trihalomethanes), some have hypothesized that MX might play a role in the increased cancer risks that have been associated with the consumption of chlorinated water. This hypothesis is based on observations that MX, in some test systems, is extremely potent relative to trihalomethanes in inducing DNA damage and altering pathways involved in cell growth, and that in some epidemiological studies increased cancer rates are associated with the bacterial mutagenicity of disinfected water of which MX contributes a significant portion. MX also appears to be more potent than other chlorination by-products in causing cancer in animals. This article reviews the available evidence on the carcinogenicity of MX. MX induced cancer at multiple sites in male and female rats, acted as a tumor initiator and promoter, enhanced tumor yields in genetically modified rodents, induced a myriad of genotoxic effects in numerous in vitro and in vivo test systems, and was a potent inhibitor of gap junction intercellular communication. Although the precise mechanism of MX-induced DNA damage is not known, MX is able to cause DNA damage through an unusual mechanism of ionizing DNA bases due to its extremely high reductive potential. MX may also cause mutations through DNA adduction. This article develops a mean cancer potency estimate for MX of 2.3 (mg/kg-d)(-1) and an upper 95% percentile estimate of 4.5 (mg/kg-d)(-1), and examines the potential health risks posed by this chlorination contaminant in drinking water. A discussion of additional data that would be desirable to better characterize the risks posed by MX and other halogenated hydroxyfuranones follows.