1
|
Horiuchi D, Shimono T, Tatekawa H, Tsukamoto T, Takita H, Matsushita S, Miki Y. Brain temperature remains stable during the day: a study of diffusion-weighted imaging thermometry in healthy individuals. Neuroradiology 2023:10.1007/s00234-023-03142-9. [PMID: 36949255 DOI: 10.1007/s00234-023-03142-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2022] [Accepted: 03/16/2023] [Indexed: 03/24/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE To investigate the daily fluctuations in brain temperature in healthy individuals using magnetic resonance (MR) diffusion-weighted imaging (DWI) thermometry and to clarify the associations between the brain and body temperatures and sex. METHODS Thirty-two age-matched healthy male and female volunteers (male = 16, 20-38 years) were recruited between July 2021 and January 2022. Brain MR examinations were performed in the morning and evening phases on the same day to calculate the brain temperatures using DWI thermometry. Body temperature was also measured in each MR examination. Group comparisons of body and brain temperatures between the two phases were performed using paired t-tests. A multiple linear regression model was used to predict the morning brain temperature using sex, evening brain temperature, and the interaction between sex and evening brain temperature as covariates. RESULTS Body temperatures were significantly higher in the evening than in the morning in all participants, male group, and female group (p < 0.001, = 0001, and < 0.001, respectively). Meanwhile, no significant difference was observed between the morning and evening brain temperatures in each analysis (p = 0.23, 0.70, and 0.16, respectively). Multiple linear regression analysis showed significant associations of morning brain temperature with sex (p = 0.038), evening brain temperature (p < 0.001), and the interaction between sex and evening brain temperature (p = 0.036). CONCLUSION Unlike body temperature, brain temperature showed no significant daily fluctuations; however, daily fluctuations in brain temperature may vary depending on sex.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Daisuke Horiuchi
- Department of Diagnostic and Interventional Radiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka City University, 1-4-3, Asahi-machi, Abeno-ku, Osaka, 545-8585, Japan.
- Department of Diagnostic and Interventional Radiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka Metropolitan University, Osaka, Japan.
| | - Taro Shimono
- Department of Diagnostic and Interventional Radiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka Metropolitan University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Hiroyuki Tatekawa
- Department of Diagnostic and Interventional Radiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka Metropolitan University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Taro Tsukamoto
- Department of Diagnostic and Interventional Radiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka Metropolitan University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Hirotaka Takita
- Department of Diagnostic and Interventional Radiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka City University, 1-4-3, Asahi-machi, Abeno-ku, Osaka, 545-8585, Japan
- Department of Diagnostic and Interventional Radiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka Metropolitan University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Shu Matsushita
- Department of Diagnostic and Interventional Radiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka Metropolitan University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Yukio Miki
- Department of Diagnostic and Interventional Radiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka Metropolitan University, Osaka, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Abstract
Diffusion-weighted imaging (DWI) thermometry is a magnetic resonance-based imaging tool that allows the noninvasive measurement of brain core temperature. Although only applicable to cerebrospinal fluid, it is thought to be potentially useful in assessing the thermal pathophysiology of the brain in both patients and healthy subjects. The objective of this article is to provide a concise but thorough review of the basic physical principles and the principal applications of DWI thermometry as a potential method to elucidate the pathophysiology of several brain diseases and neurologic syndromes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gianvincenzo Sparacia
- Department of Diagnostic and Therapeutic Services, IRCCS-ISMETT, Via Tricomi, 5, Palermo 90127, Italy.
| | - Koji Sakai
- Clinical AI Research Laboratory, Department of Radiology, Kyoto Prefectural University of Medicine, 465 Kajii-cho, Kawaramachi-Hirokoji, Kamigyo-ku, Kyoto 602-8566, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Chen SF, Pan HY, Huang CR, Huang JB, Tan TY, Chen NC, Hsu CY, Chuang YC. Autonomic Dysfunction Contributes to Impairment of Cerebral Autoregulation in Patients with Epilepsy. J Pers Med 2021; 11:jpm11040313. [PMID: 33920691 PMCID: PMC8073240 DOI: 10.3390/jpm11040313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2021] [Revised: 04/16/2021] [Accepted: 04/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Patients with epilepsy frequently experience autonomic dysfunction and impaired cerebral autoregulation. The present study investigates autonomic function and cerebral autoregulation in patients with epilepsy to determine whether these factors contribute to impaired autoregulation. A total of 81 patients with epilepsy and 45 healthy controls were evaluated, assessing their sudomotor, cardiovagal, and adrenergic functions using a battery of autonomic nervous system (ANS) function tests, including the deep breathing, Valsalva maneuver, head-up tilting, and Q-sweat tests. Cerebral autoregulation was measured by transcranial Doppler examination during the breath-holding test, the Valsalva maneuver, and the head-up tilting test. Autonomic functions were impaired during the interictal period in patients with epilepsy compared to healthy controls. The three indices of cerebral autoregulation—the breath-holding index (BHI), an autoregulation index calculated in phase II of the Valsalva maneuver (ASI), and cerebrovascular resistance measured in the second minute during the head-up tilting test (CVR2-min)—all decreased in patients with epilepsy. ANS dysfunction correlated significantly with impairment of cerebral autoregulation (measured by BHI, ASI, and CVR2-min), suggesting that the increased autonomic dysfunction in patients with epilepsy may augment the dysregulation of cerebral blood flow. Long-term epilepsy, a high frequency of seizures, and refractory epilepsy, particularly temporal lobe epilepsy, may contribute to advanced autonomic dysfunction and impaired cerebral autoregulation. These results have implications for therapeutic interventions that aim to correct central autonomic dysfunction and impairment of cerebral autoregulation, particularly in patients at high risk for sudden, unexplained death in epilepsy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shu-Fang Chen
- Department of Neurology, Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Kaohsiung 83301, Taiwan; (S.-F.C.); (H.-Y.P.); (C.-R.H.); (J.-B.H.); (T.-Y.T.); (N.-C.C.)
- College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 33302, Taiwan
| | - Hsiu-Yung Pan
- Department of Neurology, Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Kaohsiung 83301, Taiwan; (S.-F.C.); (H.-Y.P.); (C.-R.H.); (J.-B.H.); (T.-Y.T.); (N.-C.C.)
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Kaohsiung 83301, Taiwan
| | - Chi-Ren Huang
- Department of Neurology, Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Kaohsiung 83301, Taiwan; (S.-F.C.); (H.-Y.P.); (C.-R.H.); (J.-B.H.); (T.-Y.T.); (N.-C.C.)
- College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 33302, Taiwan
| | - Jyun-Bin Huang
- Department of Neurology, Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Kaohsiung 83301, Taiwan; (S.-F.C.); (H.-Y.P.); (C.-R.H.); (J.-B.H.); (T.-Y.T.); (N.-C.C.)
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Kaohsiung 83301, Taiwan
| | - Teng-Yeow Tan
- Department of Neurology, Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Kaohsiung 83301, Taiwan; (S.-F.C.); (H.-Y.P.); (C.-R.H.); (J.-B.H.); (T.-Y.T.); (N.-C.C.)
- College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 33302, Taiwan
| | - Nai-Ching Chen
- Department of Neurology, Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Kaohsiung 83301, Taiwan; (S.-F.C.); (H.-Y.P.); (C.-R.H.); (J.-B.H.); (T.-Y.T.); (N.-C.C.)
- College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 33302, Taiwan
| | - Chung-Yao Hsu
- Department of Neurology, School of Medicine, College of Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung 80708, Taiwan;
| | - Yao-Chung Chuang
- Department of Neurology, Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Kaohsiung 83301, Taiwan; (S.-F.C.); (H.-Y.P.); (C.-R.H.); (J.-B.H.); (T.-Y.T.); (N.-C.C.)
- College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 33302, Taiwan
- Department of Neurology, School of Medicine, College of Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung 80708, Taiwan;
- Institute for Translation Research in Biomedicine, Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Kaohsiung 83301, Taiwan
- Department of Biological Science, National Sun Yat-sen University, Kaohsiung 80424, Taiwan
- Correspondence:
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Zhao Z, Xu G, Shen Z, Grunebaum M, Li X, Sun B, Li S, Xu Y, Huang M, Xu D. The Effect of Auditory Verbal Hallucinations on the Relationship between Spontaneous Brain Activity and intraventricular Brain Temperature in Patients with Drug-Naïve Schizophrenia. Neurosci Lett 2020; 729:134933. [PMID: 32325103 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2020.134933] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2019] [Revised: 03/23/2020] [Accepted: 03/25/2020] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Our recent study reported that adolescent-onset schizophrenia showed an uncoupling between intraventricular brain temperature (iBT) and local spontaneous brain activity (SBA). While auditory verbal hallucinations (AVH) are common in schizophrenia, the role of AVH in the iBT-SBA relationship is unclear. The current study recruited 24 drug-naïve schizophrenia patients with AVH, 20 patients without AVH and 30 matched healthy controls (HC). We used a diffusion-weighted imaging (DWI) based thermometry method to calculate the iBT for each participant and used both regional homogeneity and amplitude of low-frequency fluctuation methods to assess the SBA. One-way ANOVA was used to detect group differences in iBT, and a partial correlation analysis controlling for lateral ventricles volume, sex and age was applied to detect the relationships between iBT and SBA across the three groups. The results demonstrated that the AVH group showed a significant coupling between iBT and SBA in the bilateral lingual gyrus, left superior occipital gyrus and caudate compared with the other two groups, and no uncoupling was found in the two patients groups relative to HCs. These findings suggest that AVH may modulate the relationship between iBT and SBA in schizophrenia-related regions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Zhiyong Zhao
- Key Laboratory for Biomedical Engineering of Ministry of Education, College of Biomedical Engineering & Instrument Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310027, China; Shanghai Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance, East China Normal University, Shanghai, 200062, China; Molecular Imaging and Neuropathology Division, Columbia University Department of Psychiatry & New York State Psychiatric Institute, 1051 Riverside Drive, New York, NY, 10032, USA
| | - Guojun Xu
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance, East China Normal University, Shanghai, 200062, China; Molecular Imaging and Neuropathology Division, Columbia University Department of Psychiatry & New York State Psychiatric Institute, 1051 Riverside Drive, New York, NY, 10032, USA
| | - Zhe Shen
- College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, No. 268, Kaixuan Road, Hangzhou, 310000, Zhejiang Province, China
| | - Michael Grunebaum
- Molecular Imaging and Neuropathology Division, Columbia University Department of Psychiatry & New York State Psychiatric Institute, 1051 Riverside Drive, New York, NY, 10032, USA
| | - Xuzhou Li
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance, East China Normal University, Shanghai, 200062, China; Molecular Imaging and Neuropathology Division, Columbia University Department of Psychiatry & New York State Psychiatric Institute, 1051 Riverside Drive, New York, NY, 10032, USA
| | - Bin Sun
- College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, No. 268, Kaixuan Road, Hangzhou, 310000, Zhejiang Province, China
| | - Shangda Li
- College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, No. 268, Kaixuan Road, Hangzhou, 310000, Zhejiang Province, China
| | - Yi Xu
- Department of Psychiatry, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, The Key Laboratory of Mental Disorder's Management of Zhejiang Province, Hangzhou, 310003, Zhejiang Province, China
| | - Manli Huang
- Department of Psychiatry, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, The Key Laboratory of Mental Disorder's Management of Zhejiang Province, Hangzhou, 310003, Zhejiang Province, China.
| | - Dongrong Xu
- Molecular Imaging and Neuropathology Division, Columbia University Department of Psychiatry & New York State Psychiatric Institute, 1051 Riverside Drive, New York, NY, 10032, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Mora Álvarez MG, Stobbe RW, Beaulieu C. High resolution continuous arterial spin labeling of human cerebral perfusion using a separate neck tagging RF coil. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0215998. [PMID: 31022257 PMCID: PMC6483248 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0215998] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2019] [Accepted: 04/11/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
For standard clinical applications, ASL images are typically acquired with 4–8 mm thick slices and 3–4 mm in-plane resolution. However, in this paper we demonstrate that high-resolution continuous arterial spin labeling (CASL) perfusion images can be acquired in a clinically relevant scan time using current MRI technology. CASL was implemented with a separate neck coil for labeling the arterial blood on a 4.7T MRI using standard axial 2D GE-EPI. Typical-resolution to high-resolution (voxels of 95, 60, 45, 27, or 7 mm3) images were compared for qualitative and quantitative cerebral blood flow analysis (CBF) in nine healthy volunteers (ages: 24–32 years). The highest resolution (1.5x1.5x3 = 7 mm3) CASL implementation yielded perfusion images with improved cortex depiction and increased cortical CBF measurements (53 ± 8 ml/100g/min), consistent with reduced partial volume averaging. The 7 mm3 voxel images were acquired with 6 cm brain coverage in a clinically relevant scan of 6 minutes. Improved spatial resolution facilitates CBF measurement with reduced partial volume averaging and may be valuable for the detection of perfusion deficits in small lesions and perfusion measurement in small brain regions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- María Guadalupe Mora Álvarez
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
| | - Robert Wayne Stobbe
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
| | - Christian Beaulieu
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
- * E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Sone D, Maikusa N, Sato N, Kimura Y, Ota M, Matsuda H. Similar and Differing Distributions Between 18F-FDG-PET and Arterial Spin Labeling Imaging in Temporal Lobe Epilepsy. Front Neurol 2019; 10:318. [PMID: 31001198 PMCID: PMC6456651 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2019.00318] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2018] [Accepted: 03/14/2019] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Background: Despite the increasing use of arterial spin labeling (ASL) in patients with epilepsy, little is known about its brain regional distribution pattern, including diaschisis, and its correspondence with FDG-PET. Here, we investigated the regional match and mismatch between FDG-PET and ASL in temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE). Methods: We recruited 27 patients with unilateral TLE, who underwent inter-ictal ASL and FDG-PET scans. These images were spatially normalized using Statistical Parametric Mapping 12, and the regional values in both ASL and FDG-PET were calculated using PMOD software within 20 volumes of interest (VOIs), including the temporal lobe, adjacent cortices, subcortical structures, and cerebellum. ASL images of 37 healthy controls were also analyzed and compared. Results: Whereas, ASL showed significant side differences, mainly in the temporal and frontal lobes, the significant abnormalities in FDG-PET were more widespread and included the insula and supramarginal gyrus. Ipsilateral thalamic reduction was found in FDG-PET only. The detectability of the focus side compared with the contralateral side was generally higher in FDG-PET. The discriminative values in ASL compared with healthy controls were higher in temporal neocortex and amygdala VOIs. Conclusions: There are similar and differing regional distributions between FDG-PET and ASL in TLE, possibly reflecting regional match and mismatch of cerebral blood flow and metabolism. At this stage, it seems that ASL couldn't present comparable clinical usefulness with FDG-PET. These findings deepen our knowledge of ASL imaging and are potentially useful for its further application.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Daichi Sone
- Integrative Brain Imaging Center, National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Norihide Maikusa
- Integrative Brain Imaging Center, National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Noriko Sato
- Department of Radiology, National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Yukio Kimura
- Department of Radiology, National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Miho Ota
- Integrative Brain Imaging Center, National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry, Tokyo, Japan.,Division of Clinical Medicine, Department of Neuropsychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, University of Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Matsuda
- Integrative Brain Imaging Center, National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry, Tokyo, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Altered coupling of spontaneous brain activities and brain temperature in patients with adolescent-onset, first-episode, drug-naïve schizophrenia. Neuroradiology 2019; 61:575-584. [PMID: 30843095 DOI: 10.1007/s00234-019-02181-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2018] [Accepted: 01/29/2019] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE A recent study has reported that schizophrenia patients show an uncoupled association between intraventricular brain temperature (BT) and cerebral blood flow (CBF). CBF has been found to be closely coupled with spontaneous brain activities (SBAs) derived from resting-state BOLD fMRI metrics. Yet, it is unclear so far whether the relationship between the intraventricular BT and the SBAs may change in patients with adolescent-onset schizophrenia (AOS) compared with that in healthy controls (HCs). METHODS The present study recruited 28 first-episode, drug-naïve AOS patients and 22 matched HCs. We measured the temperature of the lateral ventricles (LV) using diffusion-weighted imaging thermometry and measured SBAs using both regional homogeneity and amplitude of low-frequency fluctuation methods. A nonparametric Wilcoxon rank sum test was used to detect the difference in intraventricular BT between AOS patients and HCs with LV volume, age, and sex as covariates. We also evaluated the relationship between the intraventricular BT and the SBAs using partial correlation analysis controlling for LV volume, age, and sex. RESULTS We found that HCs showed a significant negative correlation between the intraventricular BT and the local SBAs in the bilateral putamina and left superior temporal gyrus, while such a correlation was absent in AOS patients. Additionally, no significant difference between the two groups was found in the intraventricular BT. CONCLUSION These findings suggest that AOS patients may experience an uncoupling between intraventricular BT and SBAs in several schizophrenia-related brain areas, which may be associated with the altered relationships among intraventricular BT, CBF, and metabolism.
Collapse
|
8
|
Hata K, Fujiwara K, Inoue T, Abe T, Kubo T, Yamakawa T, Nomura S, Imoto H, Suzuki M, Kano M. Epileptic Seizure Suppression by Focal Brain Cooling With Recirculating Coolant Cooling System: Modeling and Simulation. IEEE Trans Neural Syst Rehabil Eng 2019; 27:162-171. [PMID: 30624219 DOI: 10.1109/tnsre.2019.2891090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
A focal brain cooling system for treatment of refractory epilepsy that is implantable and wearable may permit patients with this condition to lead normal daily lives. We have developed such a system for cooling of the epileptic focus by delivery of cold saline to a cooling device that is implanted cranially. The outflow is pumped for circulation and cooled by a Peltier device. Here, we describe the design of the system and evaluate its feasibility by simulation. Mathematical models were constructed based on equations of fluid dynamics and data from a cat model. Computational fluid dynamics simulations gave the following results: 1) a cooling device with a complex channel structure gives a more uniform temperature in the brain; 2) a cooling period of <10 min is required to reach an average temperature of 25.0°Cat 2 mm below the brain surface, which is the target temperature for seizure suppression. This time is short enough for cooling of the brain before seizure onset after seizure prediction by an intracranial electroencephalogram-based algorithm; and 3) battery charging would be required once every several days for most patients. These results suggest that the focal brain cooling system may be clinically applicable.
Collapse
|
9
|
Hata K, Fujiwara K, Kano M, Inoue T, Nomura S, Imoto H, Suzuki M. Design of focal brain cooling system for suppressing epileptic seizures. ANNUAL INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE OF THE IEEE ENGINEERING IN MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY SOCIETY. IEEE ENGINEERING IN MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY SOCIETY. ANNUAL INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 2017; 2017:283-286. [PMID: 29059865 DOI: 10.1109/embc.2017.8036817] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Epilepsy is a group of diseases caused by excessive neuronal activities, and one-quarter of the patients do not become seizure-free by the existing treatments. The potential treatments include focal brain cooling, which aims to cool the region where the excessive neuronal activities begin. We are developing a focal brain cooling system. The system delivers cold saline to a cranially implanted cooling device. The outflow is cooled by a Peltier device and pumped for circulation. The Peltier device and the pump are activated only when a seizure is predicted. In this research, the length of time for cooling the brain was calculated with a computational fluid dynamics (CFD)-based model of the focal brain cooling system. As a result, it takes less than 10 minutes for the average temperature 2 mm below the cooling device to reach 25.0 °C. It is much shorter than the time from seizure prediction to seizure onset when an existing algorithm for prediction is used.
Collapse
|