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Ma Z, Hu X, Zhang Y, Li X, Chen B, An Q, Zhao Y, Zhang Y. Biomineralized Piezoelectrically Active Scaffolds for Inducing Osteogenic Differentiation. Chemistry 2023; 29:e202203166. [PMID: 36478479 DOI: 10.1002/chem.202203166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2022] [Revised: 12/06/2022] [Accepted: 12/06/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
There is an endogenous electric field in living organisms, which plays a vital role in the development and regeneration of bone tissue. Therefore, self-powered piezoelectric material for bone repair has become hot research in recent years. However, the current piezoelectric materials for tissue regeneration still have the shortcomings of lack of biological activity and three-dimensional structure. Here, we proposed a three-dimensional polyurethane foam (PUF) scaffold coated with piezoelectric poly (vinylidene fluoride-co-hexafluoropropylene) (PVDF-HFP) and modified by a calcium phosphate (CaP) mineralized coating. The preferred scaffold has an open circuit voltage and short circuit current output of 5 V and 200 nA. Combining the physical and chemical properties of the CaP coating, the piezoelectric signal of PVDF-HFP and the three-dimensional structure of PUF, the scaffold exhibits superior promotion of cell osteogenic differentiation and ectopic bone formation in vivo. The mechanism is attributed to an increase in intracellular Ca2+ levels in response to chemical and piezoelectric stimulation with the material. This research not only paves the way for the application of piezoelectric scaffolds to stimulate osteoblasts differentiation in situ, but also lays the foundation for the clinical treatment of long-term osteoporosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zequn Ma
- Institute of Materials Science and Devices, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Suzhou University of Science and Technology, 99 Xuefu Road, Suzhou, 215009, Jiangsu, P. R. China.,Beijing Key Laboratory of Materials Utilization of, Nonmetallic Minerals and Solid Wastes, National Laboratory of Mineral Materials, School of Materials Sciences and Technology, China University of Geosciences, Beijing, 100083, P. R. China
| | - Xiantong Hu
- Senior Department of Orthopedics, the Fourth Medical Center of PLA General Hospital, Beijing Engineering Research Center of Orthopedics Implants, Beijing, 100048, P. R. China
| | - Yi Zhang
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Materials Utilization of, Nonmetallic Minerals and Solid Wastes, National Laboratory of Mineral Materials, School of Materials Sciences and Technology, China University of Geosciences, Beijing, 100083, P. R. China
| | - Xiangming Li
- Department of Functional Materials, School of Materials Sciences and Technology, Guangdong University of Petrochemical Technology, Maoming, 525000, P. R. China
| | - Bo Chen
- Institute of Materials Science and Devices, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Suzhou University of Science and Technology, 99 Xuefu Road, Suzhou, 215009, Jiangsu, P. R. China
| | - Qi An
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Materials Utilization of, Nonmetallic Minerals and Solid Wastes, National Laboratory of Mineral Materials, School of Materials Sciences and Technology, China University of Geosciences, Beijing, 100083, P. R. China
| | - Yantao Zhao
- Senior Department of Orthopedics, the Fourth Medical Center of PLA General Hospital, Beijing Engineering Research Center of Orthopedics Implants, Beijing, 100048, P. R. China.,State Key Laboratory of Military Stomatology, Xi'an, 710032, P. R. China
| | - Yihe Zhang
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Materials Utilization of, Nonmetallic Minerals and Solid Wastes, National Laboratory of Mineral Materials, School of Materials Sciences and Technology, China University of Geosciences, Beijing, 100083, P. R. China
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2
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Fluorescence conjugated nanostructured cobalt-doped hydroxyapatite platform for imaging-guided drug delivery application. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 2022; 214:112458. [PMID: 35306345 DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2022.112458] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2021] [Revised: 03/08/2022] [Accepted: 03/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Multifunctional nanomaterials developed from hydroxyapatite (HAp) with enhanced biological characteristics have recently attracted attention in the biomedical field. The goal of this study is to investigate the potential applications of cobalt-doped HAp (Co-HAp) in the biomedical imaging and therapeutic applications. The co-precipitation approach was used to substitute different molar concentrations of Ca2+ ions with cobalt (Co2+) in HAp structure. The synthesized Co-HAp nanoparticles were studied using various sophisticated techniques to verify the success rate of the doping method. The specific crystal structure, functional groups, size, morphology, photoluminescence property, and thermal stability of the Co-HAp nanoparticles were analyzed based on the characterization results. The computational modelling of doped and undoped HAp reveals the difference in crystal structure parameters. The cytotoxicity study (MTT assay and AO/PI/Hoechst fluorescence staining) reveals the non-toxic characteristics of Co-HAp nanoparticles on MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cell lines. The DOX was loaded onto Co-HAp, showing the maximum drug loading capacity for 2.0 mol% Co-HAp. Drug release was estimated in five different pH environments with various time intervals over 72 h. Furthermore, 2.0 mol% Co-HAp shows excellent fluorescence sensitivity with FITC-conjugated MDA-MB-231 cell lines. These results suggest that cobalt improved the fluorescence intensity of FITC-labeled HAp nanoparticles. This work highlights the promising application of Co-HAp nanoparticles with significant enhanced fluorescence activity for imaging-guided drug delivery system.
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Recovery of Some Critical Raw Materials from Processing Waste of Feldspar Ore Related to Hydrothermally Altered Granite: Laboratory-Scale Beneficiation. MINERALS 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/min11050455] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Feldspar for ceramic/glass industries requires sufficiently low content of harmful colourants (Fe-, Ti-, Mn-bearing mineral phases). Hydrothermally altered albite-rich granites are increasingly used as feldspar raw material nowadays; however, they are often marked by increased content of colourants, which must be removed during the processing of feldspar ore. Parallel to the content of colourants, these phases show enrichment in some critical raw materials (CRMs), specifically of Nb, Ta, and Li. In the current study, the laboratory trials focused on the possibility of reprocessing of waste generated during basic magnetic separation of feldspar ore. Major aim of these trials was to search for a processing scheme that would allow for obtaining of mineralogically homogeneous fractions, part of which could be utilised as a source of CRMs. According to the results, combination of gravity, magnetic and heavy liquid separation is highly effective in obtaining of desirable concentrates. Feldspar ore processing waste thus presents potential source of CRMs; however, semi-industrial and full-scale trial must follow in order to prove the economic and environmental suitability of the suggested processing scheme.
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Maqbool M, Nawaz Q, Atiq Ur Rehman M, Cresswell M, Jackson P, Hurle K, Detsch R, Goldmann WH, Shah AT, Boccaccini AR. Synthesis, Characterization, Antibacterial Properties, and In Vitro Studies of Selenium and Strontium Co-Substituted Hydroxyapatite. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:4246. [PMID: 33921909 PMCID: PMC8072711 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22084246] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2021] [Revised: 04/06/2021] [Accepted: 04/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
In this study, as a measure to enhance the antimicrobial activity of biomaterials, the selenium ions have been substituted into hydroxyapatite (HA) at different concentration levels. To balance the potential cytotoxic effects of selenite ions (SeO32-) in HA, strontium (Sr2+) was co-substituted at the same concentration. Selenium and strontium-substituted hydroxyapatites (Se-Sr-HA) at equal molar ratios of x Se/(Se + P) and x Sr/(Sr + Ca) at (x = 0, 0.01, 0.03, 0.05, 0.1, and 0.2) were synthesized via the wet precipitation route and sintered at 900 °C. The effect of the two-ion concentration on morphology, surface charge, composition, antibacterial ability, and cell viability were studied. X-ray diffraction verified the phase purity and confirmed the substitution of selenium and strontium ions. Acellular in vitro bioactivity tests revealed that Se-Sr-HA was highly bioactive compared to pure HA. Se-Sr-HA samples showed excellent antibacterial activity against both Gram-negative (Escherichia coli) and Gram-positive (Staphylococcus carnosus) bacterial strains. In vitro cell-material interaction, using human osteosarcoma cells MG-63 studied by WST-8 assay, showed that Se-HA has a cytotoxic effect; however, the co-substitution of strontium in Se-HA offsets the negative impact of selenium and enhanced the biological properties of HA. Hence, the prepared samples are a suitable choice for antibacterial coatings and bone filler applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Maqbool
- Institute of Biomaterials, University of Erlangen-Nuremberg, 91058 Erlangen, Germany; (M.M.); (Q.N.); (M.A.U.R.); (R.D.)
- Lucideon Ltd., Penkhull, Stoke-on-Trent, Staffordshire ST4 7LQ, UK; (M.C.); (P.J.)
- CAM Bioceramics B.V., 2333 CL Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Qaisar Nawaz
- Institute of Biomaterials, University of Erlangen-Nuremberg, 91058 Erlangen, Germany; (M.M.); (Q.N.); (M.A.U.R.); (R.D.)
| | - Muhammad Atiq Ur Rehman
- Institute of Biomaterials, University of Erlangen-Nuremberg, 91058 Erlangen, Germany; (M.M.); (Q.N.); (M.A.U.R.); (R.D.)
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Institute of Space Technology Islamabad, Islamabad 44000, Pakistan
| | - Mark Cresswell
- Lucideon Ltd., Penkhull, Stoke-on-Trent, Staffordshire ST4 7LQ, UK; (M.C.); (P.J.)
| | - Phil Jackson
- Lucideon Ltd., Penkhull, Stoke-on-Trent, Staffordshire ST4 7LQ, UK; (M.C.); (P.J.)
| | - Katrin Hurle
- GeoZentrum Nordbayern, Mineralogy, University of Erlangen-Nuremberg, 91054 Erlangen, Germany;
| | - Rainer Detsch
- Institute of Biomaterials, University of Erlangen-Nuremberg, 91058 Erlangen, Germany; (M.M.); (Q.N.); (M.A.U.R.); (R.D.)
| | - Wolfgang H. Goldmann
- Department of Biophysics, University of Erlangen-Nuremberg, 91052 Erlangen, Germany;
| | - Asma Tufail Shah
- Interdisciplinary Research Centre in Biomedical Materials (IRCBM), COMSATS University Islamabad Lahore Campus, Defence Road, Off-Raiwind Road, Lahore 54000, Pakistan;
| | - Aldo R. Boccaccini
- Institute of Biomaterials, University of Erlangen-Nuremberg, 91058 Erlangen, Germany; (M.M.); (Q.N.); (M.A.U.R.); (R.D.)
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5
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Yuan Z, Bi J, Wang W, Sun X, Wang L, Mao J, Yang F. Synthesis and properties of Sr 2+ doping α-tricalcium phosphate at low temperature. J Appl Biomater Funct Mater 2021; 19:2280800021996999. [PMID: 33653180 DOI: 10.1177/2280800021996999] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Strontium has been widely used in bone repair materials due to its roles in promoting osteoclast apoptosis and enhancing osteoblast proliferation. In this work, synthesis and the effects of Sr2+ doping α-tricalcium phosphate at low-temperature was studied. The setting time and the mechanical properties of α-tricalcium phosphate were controlled by varying the content of Sr2+. The synthesized compounds were evaluated by XRD, SEM, XPS, setting time, compressive strength, SBF immersion, and colorimetric CCK-8 assay. The results showed that Sr2+ can improve the compressive strength and cell activity of calcium phosphate bone cement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhen Yuan
- Key Laboratory of Liquid-Solid Structure Evolution and Processing of Materials, Ministry of Education, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Shandong University, Jinan, P. R. China.,Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Engineering Ceramics, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Shandong University, Jinan, P. R. China
| | - Jianqiang Bi
- Key Laboratory of Liquid-Solid Structure Evolution and Processing of Materials, Ministry of Education, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Shandong University, Jinan, P. R. China.,Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Engineering Ceramics, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Shandong University, Jinan, P. R. China
| | - Weili Wang
- Key Laboratory of Liquid-Solid Structure Evolution and Processing of Materials, Ministry of Education, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Shandong University, Jinan, P. R. China.,Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Engineering Ceramics, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Shandong University, Jinan, P. R. China
| | - Xiaoning Sun
- Key Laboratory of Liquid-Solid Structure Evolution and Processing of Materials, Ministry of Education, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Shandong University, Jinan, P. R. China.,Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Engineering Ceramics, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Shandong University, Jinan, P. R. China
| | - Lu Wang
- Key Laboratory of Liquid-Solid Structure Evolution and Processing of Materials, Ministry of Education, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Shandong University, Jinan, P. R. China.,Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Engineering Ceramics, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Shandong University, Jinan, P. R. China
| | - Junjie Mao
- Key Laboratory of Liquid-Solid Structure Evolution and Processing of Materials, Ministry of Education, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Shandong University, Jinan, P. R. China.,Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Engineering Ceramics, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Shandong University, Jinan, P. R. China
| | - Fushuai Yang
- Key Laboratory of Liquid-Solid Structure Evolution and Processing of Materials, Ministry of Education, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Shandong University, Jinan, P. R. China.,Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Engineering Ceramics, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Shandong University, Jinan, P. R. China
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6
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Yu L, Wei M. Biomineralization of Collagen-Based Materials for Hard Tissue Repair. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:944. [PMID: 33477897 PMCID: PMC7833386 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22020944] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/25/2020] [Revised: 01/15/2021] [Accepted: 01/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Hydroxyapatite (HA) reinforced collagen fibrils serve as the basic building blocks of natural bone and dentin. Mineralization of collagen fibrils play an essential role in ensuring the structural and mechanical functionalities of hard tissues such as bone and dentin. Biomineralization of collagen can be divided into intrafibrillar and extrafibrillar mineralization in terms of HA distribution relative to collagen fibrils. Intrafibrillar mineralization is termed when HA minerals are incorporated within the gap zone of collagen fibrils, while extrafibrillar mineralization refers to the minerals that are formed on the surface of collagen fibrils. However, the mechanisms resulting in these two types of mineralization still remain debatable. In this review, the evolution of both classical and non-classical biomineralization theories is summarized. Different intrafibrillar mineralization mechanisms, including polymer induced liquid precursor (PILP), capillary action, electrostatic attraction, size exclusion, Gibbs-Donnan equilibrium, and interfacial energy guided theories, are discussed. Exemplary strategies to induce biomimetic intrafibrillar mineralization using non-collagenous proteins (NCPs), polymer analogs, small molecules, and fluidic shear stress are discussed, and recent applications of mineralized collagen fibers for bone regeneration and dentin repair are included. Finally, conclusions are drawn on these proposed mechanisms, and the future trend of collagen-based materials for bone regeneration and tooth repair is speculated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Le Yu
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Ohio University, Athens, OH 45701, USA;
| | - Mei Wei
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Ohio University, Athens, OH 45701, USA;
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Ohio University, Athens, OH 45701, USA
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7
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Hargrove D, Liang B, Kashfi-Sadabad R, Joshi GN, Gonzalez-Fajardo L, Glass S, Jay M, Salner A, Lu X. Tumor-mesoporous silica nanoparticle interactions following intraperitoneal delivery for targeting peritoneal metastasis. J Control Release 2020; 328:846-858. [PMID: 33166606 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2020.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2020] [Revised: 11/01/2020] [Accepted: 11/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The use of intraperitoneal administration of nanoparticles has been reported to facilitate higher concentrations of nanoparticles in metastatic peritoneal tumors. While this strategy is appealing for limiting systemic exposure of nanocarrier delivered toxic cargoes and increasing nanoparticle concentrations in avascular peritoneal tumors, little is known about the mechanism of nanoparticle accumulation on tumor tissues and currently, no nanoparticle-based product has been approved for intraperitoneal delivery. Here, we investigated the nanoparticle-specific characteristics that led to increased peritoneal tumor accumulation using MCM-41 type mesoporous silica nanoparticles as our model system. We also investigated the components of the peritoneal tumor stroma that facilitated nanoparticle-tumor interaction. The tumor extracellular matrix is the main factor driving these interactions, specifically the interaction of nanoparticles with collagen. Upon disruption of the collagen matrix, nanoparticle accumulation was reduced by 50%. It is also notable that the incorporation of targeting ligands did not increase overall tumor accumulation in vivo while it significantly increased nanoparticle accumulation in vitro. The use of other particle chemistries did not grossly affect the tumor targetability, but additional concerns arose when those tested particles exhibited significant systemic exposure. Mesoporous silica nanoparticles are advantageous for intraperitoneal administration for the treatment of peritoneal metastasis due to their physical stability, tumor targetability, strong interaction with the collagen matrix, and extended peritoneal residence time. Maximizing nanoparticle interaction with the tumor extracellular matrix is critical for developing strategies to deliver emerging therapeutics for peritoneal cancer treatment using nanocarriers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Derek Hargrove
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Connecticut, Storrs, USA
| | - Brian Liang
- School of Medicine, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, USA
| | | | - Gaurav N Joshi
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Connecticut, Storrs, USA
| | | | - Sterling Glass
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Connecticut, Storrs, USA
| | - Michael Jay
- Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Andrew Salner
- Helen and Harrry Gray Cancer Center, Hartford Hospital Department of Radiation Oncology, Hartford, CT, USA
| | - Xiuling Lu
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Connecticut, Storrs, USA.
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Habib M, Horne DA, Hussein K, Coughlin D, Waldorff EI, Zhang N, Ryaby JT, Lotz JC. Magnetic Nanoparticles Synergize with Pulsed Magnetic Fields to Stimulate Osteogenesis In Vitro. Tissue Eng Part A 2020; 27:402-412. [PMID: 32746770 DOI: 10.1089/ten.tea.2020.0102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Delayed bone healing is a major challenge in orthopedic clinical practice, highlighting a need for technologies to overcome ineffective cell growth and osteogenic differentiation. The objective of this study was to investigate the synergistic effects of the PhysioStim (PEMF) signal with iron-ion doped tri-calcium phosphate bone substitute on human mesenchymal stem cell (hMSC) osteogenesis in vitro. Intrinsically magnetic nano-bone substitutes (MNBS) were developed with single particles on the order of 100 nm, saturation magnetization of 0.425 emu/g, and remanent magnetization of 0.013 emu/g. MNBS were added to hMSC culture and cell viability, alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity, mineralization, and osteogenic gene expression in the presence and absence of PEMF were quantified for up to 10 days. MNBS attached to the surface of and were internalized by hMSCs when cultured together for 4 days and had no impact on cell viability with PEMF exposure for up to 7 days. Although total ALP activity was significantly increased with PEMF treatment alone, with a peak at day 5, PEMF combined with MNBS significantly increased ALP activity, with a peak at day 3, compared with all other groups (p < 0.01). The shift can be explained by significantly increased extracellular ALP activity beginning at day 2 (p < 0.01). PEMF combined with MNBS demonstrated continuously increasing mineralization overtime, with significantly greater Alizarin Red S concentration compared with all other groups at day 7 (p < 0.01). Increases in ALP activity and mineral content were in agreement with osteogenic gene expression that demonstrated peak ALP gene expression at day 1, and upregulated BMP-2, BGLAP, and SPP1 gene expression at day 7 (p < 0.05). The results of this study demonstrate the synergistic effects of PEMF and MNBS on osteogenesis and suggest that PEMF and MNBS may provide a method for accelerated bone healing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohamed Habib
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California, USA.,Mechanical Engineering Department, Al Azhar University, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Devante A Horne
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California, USA.,The UC Berkeley-UCSF Graduate Program in Bioengineering, University of California, Berkeley, and University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, USA
| | - Khaled Hussein
- Mechanical Engineering Department, Al Azhar University, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Dezba Coughlin
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California, USA
| | | | | | | | - Jeffrey C Lotz
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California, USA.,The UC Berkeley-UCSF Graduate Program in Bioengineering, University of California, Berkeley, and University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, USA
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9
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Yu L, Silva Santisteban TM, Liu Q, Hu C, Bi J, Wei M. Effect of three-dimensional porosity gradients of biomimetic coatings on their bonding strength and cell behavior. J Biomed Mater Res A 2020; 109:615-626. [PMID: 32608169 DOI: 10.1002/jbm.a.37046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2019] [Revised: 03/19/2020] [Accepted: 06/06/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Surface modification techniques are often used to enhance the properties of Ti-based materials as hard-tissue replacements. While the microstructure of the coating and the quality of the interface between the substrate and coating are essential to evaluate the reliability and applicability of the surface modification. In this study, both a hydroxyapatite (HA) coating and a collagen-hydroxyapatite (Col-HA) composite coating were deposited onto a Ti-6Al-4V substrate using a biomimetic coating process. Importantly, a gradient cross-sectional structure with a porous coating toward the surface, while a dense layer adjacent to the interface between the coating and substrate was observed in three-dimensional (3D) from both the HA and Col-HA coatings via a dual-beam focused ion beam-scanning electron microscope (FIB-SEM). Moreover, the pore distributions within the entire coatings were reconstructed in 3D using Avizo, and the pores size distributions along the coating depth were calculated using RStudio. By evaluating the mechanical property and biocompatibility of these materials and closely observing the cross-sectional cell-coating-substrate interfaces using FIB-SEM, it was revealed that the porous surface created by both coatings well supports osteoblast cell adhesion while the dense inner layer facilitates a good bonding between the coating and the substrate. Although the mechanical property of the coating decreased with the addition of collagen, it is still strong enough for implant handling and the biocompatibility was promoted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Le Yu
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut, USA.,Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Ohio University, Athens, Ohio, USA
| | | | - Qinqing Liu
- Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut, USA
| | - Changmin Hu
- Institute of Materials Science, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut, USA
| | - Jinbo Bi
- Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut, USA
| | - Mei Wei
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut, USA.,Institute of Materials Science, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut, USA.,Department of Mechanical Engineering, Ohio University, Athens, Ohio, USA
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10
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Farag MM, Ahmed MM, Abdallah NM, Swieszkowski W, Shehabeldine AM. The combined antibacterial and anticancer properties of nano Ce-containing Mg-phosphate ceramic. Life Sci 2020; 257:117999. [PMID: 32585244 DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2020.117999] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2020] [Revised: 06/14/2020] [Accepted: 06/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
AIM This paper was mainly aimed at synthesis of Ce-containing nano-Mg-phosphate ceramic as a multifunctional material. MATERIALS AND METHODS Two ceramics based on Mg3(PO4)2 and Ce0.2Mg2.8(PO4)2 formulas (MP and MP-C, respectively) were synthesized. The synthesized powders were characterized by XRD, TEM, Zeta potential, and FTIR. Also, their dissolution behavior was tested in Tris-HCl buffer solution. Moreover, the antimicrobial efficacy was evaluated against gram-positive bacteria (Bacillus sphaericus MTCC 511 &Staphylococcus aureus MTCC 87) and gram-negative bacteria (Enterobacter aerogenes MTCC 111 &Pseudomonas aeruginosa MTCC 1034) using dick diffusion assay and microdilution method. Furthermore, the cell viability test was performed for the ceramics on Vero cells (African green monkey kidney cells), and their antitumor activity was determined by PC3 cell line (prostatic cancer). Also, the cellular uptake was determined by the flow cytometry. KEY FINDINGS The results showed that the substitution of Mg by Ce decreased the particle size from 40 to 90 nm for MP sample to 2-10 nm for MP-C sample and increased the degradation rate. Both samples showed excellent antimicrobial activities. Moreover, MP demonstrated more cell viability than MP-C on Vero cells at high concentrations, whereas, MP-C showed more antitumor activity on PC3 cells than MP sample. Moreover, MP-C showed a higher cell uptake than MP due to its smaller size and more negative charge. SIGNIFICANCE Mg-phosphate ceramic can be used in this study successfully as a delivery system for cerium ions and showed a high antitumor activity, which makes it highly recommended as safe and effective cancer treatment materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammad M Farag
- Glass Research Department, National Research Centre, 33 El-Behooth Str., 12622 Dokki, Cairo, Egypt.
| | - Manar M Ahmed
- Glass Research Department, National Research Centre, 33 El-Behooth Str., 12622 Dokki, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Nehal M Abdallah
- Microbiology Department, Faculty of Science, Alazhar University, Nasr City, 11651, Cairo, Egypt
| | - W Swieszkowski
- Biomaterials Group, Faculty of Materials Science and Engineering, Warsaw University of Technology, 02-507 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Amr M Shehabeldine
- Department of Botany and Microbiology, Faculty of Science (Boys), Al-Azhar University, Nasr City, Cairo 11884, Egypt
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11
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Yu L, Rowe DW, Perera IP, Zhang J, Suib SL, Xin X, Wei M. Intrafibrillar Mineralized Collagen-Hydroxyapatite-Based Scaffolds for Bone Regeneration. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2020; 12:18235-18249. [PMID: 32212615 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.0c00275] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
As one of the major challenges in the field of tissue engineering, large skeletal defects have attracted wide attention from researchers. Collagen (Col) and hydroxyapatite (HA), the most abundant protein and the main component in natural bone, respectively, are usually used as a biomimetic composite material in tissue engineering due to their excellent biocompatibility and biodegradability. In this study, novel intrafibrillar mineralized Col-HA-based scaffolds, constructed in either cellular or lamellar microstructures, were established through a biomimetic method to enhance the new bone-regenerating capability of tissue engineering scaffolds. Moreover, iron (Fe) and manganese (Mn), two of the essential trace elements in the body, were successfully incorporated into the lamellar scaffold to further improve the osteoinductivity of these biomaterials. It was found that the lamellar scaffolds demonstrated better osteogenic abilities compared to both in-house and commercial Col-HA-based cellular scaffolds in vitro and in vivo. Meanwhile, Fe/Mn incorporation further amplified the osteogenic promotion of the lamellar scaffolds. More importantly, a synergistic effect was observed in the Fe and Mn dual-element-incorporated lamellar scaffolds for both in vitro osteogenic differentiation of bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs) and in vivo bone regeneration loaded with fresh bone marrow cells. This study provides a simple but practical strategy for the creation of functional scaffolds for bone regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Le Yu
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Ohio University, Athens, Ohio 45701, United States
| | - David W Rowe
- Center for Regenerative Medicine and Skeletal Development, School of Dental Medicine, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, Connecticut 06032, United States
| | | | | | | | - Xiaonan Xin
- Center for Regenerative Medicine and Skeletal Development, School of Dental Medicine, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, Connecticut 06032, United States
| | - Mei Wei
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Ohio University, Athens, Ohio 45701, United States
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12
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Sinusaite L, Popov A, Antuzevics A, Mazeika K, Baltrunas D, Yang JC, Horng JL, Shi S, Sekino T, Ishikawa K, Kareiva A, Zarkov A. Fe and Zn co-substituted beta-tricalcium phosphate (β-TCP): Synthesis, structural, magnetic, mechanical and biological properties. MATERIALS SCIENCE & ENGINEERING. C, MATERIALS FOR BIOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS 2020; 112:110918. [PMID: 32409069 DOI: 10.1016/j.msec.2020.110918] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2019] [Revised: 03/14/2020] [Accepted: 03/31/2020] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
In the present work, Fe3+ and Zn2+ co-substituted β-tricalcium phosphate (β-TCP) has been synthesized by wet co-precipitation method. Co-substitution level in the range from 1 to 5 mol% has been studied. Thermal decomposition of as-prepared precipitates was shown to be affected by introducing of foreign ions, decreasing the decomposition temperature of precursor. It was determined that partial substitution of Ca2+ by Fe3+ and Zn2+ ions leads to the change in lattice parameters, which gradually decrease as doping level increases. Lattice distortion was also confirmed by means of Raman spectroscopy, which showed gradual change of the peaks shape in the Raman spectra. Rietveld refinement and electron paramagnetic resonance study confirmed that Fe3+ ions occupy only one Ca crystallographic site until Fe3+ and Zn2+ substitution level reaches 5 mol%. All co-substituted samples revealed paramagnetic behavior, magnetization of powders was determined to be linearly dependent on concentration of Fe3+ ions. Cytotoxicity of the synthesized species was estimated by in vivo assay using zebrafish (Danio rerio) and revealed non-toxic nature of the samples. Preparation of ceramic bodies from the powders was performed, however the results obtained on Vickers hardness of the ceramics did not show improvement in mechanical properties induced by co-substitution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauryna Sinusaite
- Institute of Chemistry, Vilnius University, Naugarduko 24, LT-03225 Vilnius, Lithuania
| | - Anton Popov
- Institute of Chemistry, Vilnius University, Naugarduko 24, LT-03225 Vilnius, Lithuania; Department of Immunology, State Research Institute Centre for Innovative Medicine, Santariskiu 5, LT-08406 Vilnius, Lithuania
| | - Andris Antuzevics
- Institute of Solid State Physics, University of Latvia, Kengaraga 8, LV-1063 Riga, Latvia
| | - Kestutis Mazeika
- State Research Institute Center for Physical Sciences and Technology, Vilnius LT-02300, Lithuania
| | - Dalis Baltrunas
- State Research Institute Center for Physical Sciences and Technology, Vilnius LT-02300, Lithuania
| | - Jen-Chang Yang
- Graduate Institute of Nanomedicine and Medical Engineering, College of Biomedical Engineering, Taipei Medical University, 250 Wu-Hsing St, Taipei 11052, Taiwan
| | - Jiun Lin Horng
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Taipei Medical University, 250 Wu-Hsing St, Taipei 11052, Taiwan
| | - Shengfang Shi
- The Institute of Scientific and Industrial Research, Osaka University, 8-1 Mihogaoka, Ibaraki, Osaka 567-0047, Japan
| | - Tohru Sekino
- The Institute of Scientific and Industrial Research, Osaka University, 8-1 Mihogaoka, Ibaraki, Osaka 567-0047, Japan
| | - Kunio Ishikawa
- Department of Biomaterials, Faculty of Dental Science, Kyushu University, Maidashi, Higashi-Ku, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Aivaras Kareiva
- Institute of Chemistry, Vilnius University, Naugarduko 24, LT-03225 Vilnius, Lithuania
| | - Aleksej Zarkov
- Institute of Chemistry, Vilnius University, Naugarduko 24, LT-03225 Vilnius, Lithuania; The Institute of Scientific and Industrial Research, Osaka University, 8-1 Mihogaoka, Ibaraki, Osaka 567-0047, Japan.
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13
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Andronescu E, Predoi D, Neacsu IA, Paduraru AV, Musuc AM, Trusca R, Oprea O, Tanasa E, Vasile OR, Nicoara AI, Surdu AV, Iordache F, Birca AC, Iconaru SL, Vasile BS. Photoluminescent Hydroxylapatite: Eu 3+ Doping Effect on Biological Behaviour. NANOMATERIALS 2019; 9:nano9091187. [PMID: 31443424 PMCID: PMC6780766 DOI: 10.3390/nano9091187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2019] [Revised: 08/10/2019] [Accepted: 08/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Luminescent europium-doped hydroxylapatite (EuXHAp) nanomaterials were successfully obtained by co-precipitation method at low temperature. The morphological, structural and optical properties were investigated by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier Transform Infrared (FT-IR), UV-Vis and photoluminescence (PL) spectroscopy. The cytotoxicity and biocompatibility of EuXHAp were also evaluated using MTT (3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide)) assay, oxidative stress assessment and fluorescent microscopy. The results reveal that the Eu3+ has successfully doped the hexagonal lattice of hydroxylapatite. By enhancing the optical features, these EuXHAp materials demonstrated superior efficiency to become fluorescent labelling materials for bioimaging applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ecaterina Andronescu
- Faculty of Applied Chemistry and Materials Science, Department of Science and Engineering of Oxide Materials and Nanomaterials, University Politehnica of Bucharest, 060042 Bucharest, Romania
- National Centre for Micro and Nanomaterials, University Politehnica of Bucharest, 060042 Bucharest, Romania
- National Research Center for Food Safety, University Politehnica of Bucharest, 060042 Bucharest, Romania
| | - Daniela Predoi
- Multifunctional Materials and Structures Laboratory, National Institute of Materials Physics, 077125 Magurele, Romania
| | - Ionela Andreea Neacsu
- Faculty of Applied Chemistry and Materials Science, Department of Science and Engineering of Oxide Materials and Nanomaterials, University Politehnica of Bucharest, 060042 Bucharest, Romania
- National Centre for Micro and Nanomaterials, University Politehnica of Bucharest, 060042 Bucharest, Romania
| | - Andrei Viorel Paduraru
- Faculty of Applied Chemistry and Materials Science, Department of Science and Engineering of Oxide Materials and Nanomaterials, University Politehnica of Bucharest, 060042 Bucharest, Romania
| | - Adina Magdalena Musuc
- Faculty of Applied Chemistry and Materials Science, Department of Science and Engineering of Oxide Materials and Nanomaterials, University Politehnica of Bucharest, 060042 Bucharest, Romania
- Ilie Murgulescu Institute of Physical Chemistry, 060021 Bucharest, Romania
| | - Roxana Trusca
- National Centre for Micro and Nanomaterials, University Politehnica of Bucharest, 060042 Bucharest, Romania
- National Research Center for Food Safety, University Politehnica of Bucharest, 060042 Bucharest, Romania
| | - Ovidiu Oprea
- Faculty of Applied Chemistry and Materials Science, Department of Science and Engineering of Oxide Materials and Nanomaterials, University Politehnica of Bucharest, 060042 Bucharest, Romania
- National Centre for Micro and Nanomaterials, University Politehnica of Bucharest, 060042 Bucharest, Romania
| | - Eugenia Tanasa
- National Centre for Micro and Nanomaterials, University Politehnica of Bucharest, 060042 Bucharest, Romania
- National Research Center for Food Safety, University Politehnica of Bucharest, 060042 Bucharest, Romania
| | - Otilia Ruxandra Vasile
- National Centre for Micro and Nanomaterials, University Politehnica of Bucharest, 060042 Bucharest, Romania
- National Research Center for Food Safety, University Politehnica of Bucharest, 060042 Bucharest, Romania
| | - Adrian Ionut Nicoara
- Faculty of Applied Chemistry and Materials Science, Department of Science and Engineering of Oxide Materials and Nanomaterials, University Politehnica of Bucharest, 060042 Bucharest, Romania
- National Centre for Micro and Nanomaterials, University Politehnica of Bucharest, 060042 Bucharest, Romania
| | - Adrian Vasile Surdu
- Faculty of Applied Chemistry and Materials Science, Department of Science and Engineering of Oxide Materials and Nanomaterials, University Politehnica of Bucharest, 060042 Bucharest, Romania
- National Centre for Micro and Nanomaterials, University Politehnica of Bucharest, 060042 Bucharest, Romania
| | - Florin Iordache
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Biochemistry, University of Agronomic Science and Veterinary Medicine, 011464 Bucharest, Romania
| | - Alexandra Catalina Birca
- Faculty of Applied Chemistry and Materials Science, Department of Science and Engineering of Oxide Materials and Nanomaterials, University Politehnica of Bucharest, 060042 Bucharest, Romania
- National Centre for Micro and Nanomaterials, University Politehnica of Bucharest, 060042 Bucharest, Romania
| | - Simona Liliana Iconaru
- Multifunctional Materials and Structures Laboratory, National Institute of Materials Physics, 077125 Magurele, Romania
| | - Bogdan Stefan Vasile
- Faculty of Applied Chemistry and Materials Science, Department of Science and Engineering of Oxide Materials and Nanomaterials, University Politehnica of Bucharest, 060042 Bucharest, Romania.
- National Centre for Micro and Nanomaterials, University Politehnica of Bucharest, 060042 Bucharest, Romania.
- National Research Center for Food Safety, University Politehnica of Bucharest, 060042 Bucharest, Romania.
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Esmaeilkhanian A, Sharifianjazi F, Abouchenari A, Rouhani A, Parvin N, Irani M. Synthesis and Characterization of Natural Nano-hydroxyapatite Derived from Turkey Femur-Bone Waste. Appl Biochem Biotechnol 2019; 189:919-932. [PMID: 31144255 DOI: 10.1007/s12010-019-03046-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2019] [Accepted: 05/10/2019] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Hydroxyapatite (HAp) is a bioactive and vital material which has found many applications in the biomedical and clinical fields. This bio-ceramic powder can be synthesized via different bio-waste materials. In this study, the production of natural nanohydroxyapatite was produced through calcination of untreated turkey femur-bone waste powder at 850 °C followed by ball milling the powder. The obtained powder was characterized using X-ray diffraction (XRD) and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) analysis. The morphology, size, and elemental composition of obtained turkey hydroxyapatite (THA) particles were investigated by scanning electron microcopy (SEM), transmission electron microcopy (TEM), and energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) analysis, in which the average particle size of ball milled THA was found to be about 85 nm with a Ca/P ratio of 1.63. The powder was then cold pressed and later sintered at 850, 950, 1050, and 1150 °C to evaluate its mechanical properties in terms of compressive strength and hardness. The results revealed that the strength and hardness of the samples increased by increasing the sintering temperature up to 1150 °C. Finally, the maximum values of hardness and compressive strength of the sintered THA were obtained at 1150 °C (37.44 MPa and 3.2 GPa, respectively).
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Fariborz Sharifianjazi
- Mining and Metallurgical Engineering Department, Amirkabir University of Technology, Tehran, Iran.
| | - Aliasghar Abouchenari
- Department of Material Science and Engineering, Shahid Bahonar University of Kerman, Kerman, 7618868366, Iran
| | - Amirreza Rouhani
- Department of Mechanical, Industrial & Aerospace Engineering, Concordia University, Montreal, Canada
| | - Nader Parvin
- Mining and Metallurgical Engineering Department, Amirkabir University of Technology, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mohammad Irani
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Amirkabir University of Technology, Tehran, Iran
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15
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Tite T, Popa AC, Balescu LM, Bogdan IM, Pasuk I, Ferreira JMF, Stan GE. Cationic Substitutions in Hydroxyapatite: Current Status of the Derived Biofunctional Effects and Their In Vitro Interrogation Methods. MATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2018; 11:E2081. [PMID: 30355975 PMCID: PMC6266948 DOI: 10.3390/ma11112081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 111] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2018] [Revised: 10/13/2018] [Accepted: 10/19/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
High-performance bioceramics are required for preventing failure and prolonging the life-time of bone grafting scaffolds and osseous implants. The proper identification and development of materials with extended functionalities addressing socio-economic needs and health problems constitute important and critical steps at the heart of clinical research. Recent findings in the realm of ion-substituted hydroxyapatite (HA) could pave the road towards significant developments in biomedicine, with an emphasis on a new generation of orthopaedic and dentistry applications, since such bioceramics are able to mimic the structural, compositional and mechanical properties of the bone mineral phase. In fact, the fascinating ability of the HA crystalline lattice to allow for the substitution of calcium ions with a plethora of cationic species has been widely explored in the recent period, with consequent modifications of its physical and chemical features, as well as its functional mechanical and in vitro and in vivo biological performance. A comprehensive inventory of the progresses achieved so far is both opportune and of paramount importance, in order to not only gather and summarize information, but to also allow fellow researchers to compare with ease and filter the best solutions for the cation substitution of HA-based materials and enable the development of multi-functional biomedical designs. The review surveys preparation and synthesis methods, pinpoints all the explored cation dopants, and discloses the full application range of substituted HA. Special attention is dedicated to the antimicrobial efficiency spectrum and cytotoxic trade-off concentration values for various cell lines, highlighting new prophylactic routes for the prevention of implant failure. Importantly, the current in vitro biological tests (widely employed to unveil the biological performance of HA-based materials), and their ability to mimic the in vivo biological interactions, are also critically assessed. Future perspectives are discussed, and a series of recommendations are underlined.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teddy Tite
- National Institute of Materials Physics, RO-077125 Magurele, Romania.
| | - Adrian-Claudiu Popa
- National Institute of Materials Physics, RO-077125 Magurele, Romania.
- Army Centre for Medical Research, RO-010195 Bucharest, Romania.
| | | | | | - Iuliana Pasuk
- National Institute of Materials Physics, RO-077125 Magurele, Romania.
| | - José M F Ferreira
- Department of Materials and Ceramics Engineering, CICECO, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal.
| | - George E Stan
- National Institute of Materials Physics, RO-077125 Magurele, Romania.
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16
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Yu L, Martin IJ, Kasi RM, Wei M. Enhanced Intrafibrillar Mineralization of Collagen Fibrils Induced by Brushlike Polymers. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2018; 10:28440-28449. [PMID: 30081624 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.8b10234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Biomimetic mineralization of collagen fibrils is an essential process because the mineralized collagen fibers constitute the basic building block of natural bone. To overcome the limited availability and high cost of the noncollagenous proteins (NCPs) that regulate the mineralization process of collagen, commercially available analogues were developed to replicate sequestration and templating functions of NCPs. The use of branched polymers in intrafibrillar mineralization applications has never been explored. In this work, two novel carboxyl-rich brushlike polymers, a carboxylated polyethylene glycol terpolymer (PEG-COOH) and a polyethylene glycol/poly(acrylic acid) copolymer (PEG-PAA), were synthesized and modified to mimic the sequestration function of NCPs to induce intrafibrillar mineralization of collagen fibrils. It was found that these synthetic brushlike polymers are able to induce intrafibrillar mineralization by stabilizing the amorphous calcium phosphate (ACP) nanoprecursors and subsequently facilitating the infiltration of ACP into the gap zone of collagen microfibrils. Moreover, the weight ratios of mineral to collagen in the mineralized collagen fibrils in the presence of these brushlike polymers were 2.17 ± 0.07 for PEG-COOH and 2.23 ± 0.03 for PEG-PAA, while it is only 1.81 ± 0.21 for linear PAA. Plausible mineralization mechanisms using brushlike polymers are proposed that offer significant insight into the understanding of collagen mineralization induced by synthetic NCP analogues.
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