Antitumor effect of human TRAIL on adenoid cystic carcinoma using magnetic nanoparticle–mediated gene expression

Nano-TRAIL: a promising path to cancer therapy

Tumor Necrosis Factor-Related Apoptosis-Inducing Ligand, also called apo-2 ligand (TRAIL/Apo-2L), is a cytokine that triggers apoptosis by binding to TRAIL-R1 (DR4) and TRAIL-R2 (DR5) death receptors. Apoptosis occurs through either the extrinsic or intrinsic pathway. The administration of recombinant human TRAIL (rhTRAIL) or TRAIL-receptor (TRAIL-R) agonists promotes apoptosis preferentially in cancerous cells over normal cells in vitro; this phenomenon has also been observed in clinical studies. The limited efficacy of rhTRAIL in clinical trials could be attributed to drug resistance, short half-life, targeted delivery issues, and off-target toxicities. Nanoparticles are excellent drug and gene delivery systems characterized by improved permeability and retention, increased stability and biocompatibility, and precision targeting. In this review, we discuss resistance mechanisms to TRAIL and methods to overcome TRAIL resistance by using nanoparticle-based formulations developed for the delivery of TRAIL peptides, TRAIL-R agonists, and TRAIL genes to cancer cells. We also discuss combinatorial approaches of chemotherapeutic drugs with TRAIL. These studies demonstrate TRAIL's potential as an anticancer agent.

Iron oxide nanoparticle targeting mechanism and its application in tumor magnetic resonance imaging and therapy

Iron oxide nanoparticles (IONPs) can be applied to targeted drug delivery, targeted diagnosis and treatment of tumors due to their easy preparation, good biocompatibility, low biotoxicity, high imaging quality, high magnetothermal sensitivity and stable targeting after certain surface modifications. However, the complexity of the mechanism of action and their properties has led to there being few clinical applications of IONPs. This review first describes the targeting mechanisms of IONPs and their toxicity issues, then discusses the applications of IONP targeting studies in tumor MRI. Finally, the applications of IONP targeting in tumor therapy are listed. The authors show the advantages of targeting IONPs and hope that the review will increase the possibility of converting IONPs from biomedical applications to clinical applications.

Magnetofection In Vivo by Nanomagnetic Carriers Systemically Administered into the Bloodstream

Nanoparticle-based technologies are rapidly expanding into many areas of biomedicine and molecular science. The unique ability of magnetic nanoparticles to respond to the magnetic field makes them especially attractive for a number of in vivo applications including magnetofection. The magnetofection principle consists of the accumulation and retention of magnetic nanoparticles carrying nucleic acids in the area of magnetic field application. The method is highly promising as a clinically efficient tool for gene delivery in vivo. However, the data on in vivo magnetofection are often only descriptive or poorly studied, insufficiently systematized, and sometimes even contradictory. Therefore, the aim of the review was to systematize and analyze the data that influence the in vivo magnetofection processes after the systemic injection of magnetic nanostructures. The main emphasis is placed on the structure and coating of the nanomagnetic vectors. The present problems and future trends of the method development are also considered.

Nonviral Locally Injected Magnetic Vectors for In Vivo Gene Delivery: A Review of Studies on Magnetofection

Magnetic nanoparticles have been widely used in nanobiomedicine for diagnostics and the treatment of diseases, and as carriers for various drugs. The unique magnetic properties of "magnetic" drugs allow their delivery in a targeted tumor or tissue upon application of a magnetic field. The approach of combining magnetic drug targeting and gene delivery is called magnetofection, and it is very promising. This method is simple and efficient for the delivery of genetic material to cells using magnetic nanoparticles controlled by an external magnetic field. However, magnetofection in vivo has been studied insufficiently both for local and systemic routes of magnetic vector injection, and the relevant data available in the literature are often merely descriptive and contradictory. In this review, we collected and systematized the data on the efficiency of the local injections of magnetic nanoparticles that carry genetic information upon application of external magnetic fields. We also investigated the efficiency of magnetofection in vivo, depending on the structure and coverage of magnetic vectors. The perspectives of the development of the method were also considered.

TRAIL-based gene delivery and therapeutic strategies

TRAIL (tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand), also known as APO2L, belongs to the tumor necrosis factor family. By binding to the death receptor 4 (DR4) or DR5, TRAIL induces apoptosis of tumor cells without causing side toxicity in normal tissues. In recent years TRAIL-based therapy has attracted great attention for its promise of serving as a cancer drug candidate. However, the treatment efficacy of TRAIL protein was under expectation in the clinical trials because of the short half-life and the resistance of cancer cells. TRAIL gene transfection can produce a "bystander effect" of tumor cell killing and provide a potential solution to TRAIL-based cancer therapy. In this review we focus on TRAIL gene therapy and various design strategies of TRAIL DNA delivery including non-viral vectors and cell-based TRAIL therapy. In order to sensitize the tumor cells to TRAIL-induced apoptosis, combination therapy of TRAIL DNA with other drugs by the codelivery methods for yielding a synergistic antitumor efficacy is summarized. The opportunities and challenges of TRAIL-based gene delivery and therapy are discussed.

Non-viral Gene Delivery

Although viral vectors comprise the majority of gene delivery vectors, their various safety, production, and other practical concerns have left a research gap to be addressed. The non-viral vector space encompasses a growing variety of physical and chemical methods capable of gene delivery into the nuclei of target cells. Major physical methods described in this chapter are microinjection, electroporation, and ballistic injection, magnetofection, sonoporation, optical transfection, and localized hyperthermia. Major chemical methods described in this chapter are lipofection, polyfection, gold complexation, and carbon-based methods. Combination approaches to improve transfection efficiency or reduce immunological response have shown great promise in expanding the scope of non-viral gene delivery.

Nanocarriers for TRAIL delivery: driving TRAIL back on track for cancer therapy

Since its initial identification, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) has been shown to be capable of selectively inducing apoptosis in cancer cells. However, translation of the encouraging preclinical studies of this cytokine into the clinic has been restricted by its extremely short half-life, the presence of resistant cancer cell populations, and its inefficient in vivo delivery. Recently, there has been exceptional progress in developing novel formulations to increase the circulatory half-life of TRAIL and new combinations to treat cancers that are resistant to TRAIL. In particular, TRAIL-based nanotherapies offer the potential to improve the stability of TRAIL and prolong its half-life in plasma, to specifically deliver TRAIL to a particular target site, and to overcome resistance to TRAIL. The aim of this review is to provide an overview of the state-of-the art drug delivery systems that are currently being tested or developed to improve the biological attributes of TRAIL-based therapies.

Trigger-Responsive Gene Transporters for Anticancer Therapy

In the current era of gene delivery, trigger-responsive nanoparticles for the delivery of exogenous nucleic acids, such as plasmid DNA (pDNA), mRNA, siRNAs, and miRNAs, to cancer cells have attracted considerable interest. The cationic gene transporters commonly used are typically in the form of polyplexes, lipoplexes or mixtures of both, and their gene transfer efficiency in cancer cells depends on several factors, such as cell binding, intracellular trafficking, buffering capacity for endosomal escape, DNA unpacking, nuclear transportation, cell viability, and DNA protection against nucleases. Some of these factors influence other factors adversely, and therefore, it is of critical importance that these factors are balanced. Recently, with the advancements in contemporary tools and techniques, trigger-responsive nanoparticles with the potential to overcome their intrinsic drawbacks have been developed. This review summarizes the mechanisms and limitations of cationic gene transporters. In addition, it covers various triggers, such as light, enzymes, magnetic fields, and ultrasound (US), used to enhance the gene transfer efficiency of trigger-responsive gene transporters in cancer cells. Furthermore, the challenges associated with and future directions in developing trigger-responsive gene transporters for anticancer therapy are discussed briefly.

TRAIL-NP hybrids for cancer therapy: a review

Cancer is a worldwide health problem. It is now considered as a leading cause of morbidity and mortality in developed countries. In the last few decades, considerable progress has been made in anti-cancer therapies, allowing the cure of patients suffering from this disease, or at least helping to prolong their lives. Several cancers, such as those of the lung and pancreas, are still devastating in the absence of therapeutic options. In the early 90s, TRAIL (Tumor Necrosis Factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand), a cytokine belonging to the TNF superfamily, attracted major interest in oncology owing to its selective anti-tumor properties. Clinical trials using soluble TRAIL or antibodies targeting the two main agonist receptors (TRAIL-R1 and TRAIL-R2) have, however, failed to demonstrate their efficacy in the clinic. TRAIL is expressed on the surface of natural killer or CD8+ T activated cells and contributes to tumor surveillance. Nanoparticles functionalized with TRAIL mimic membrane-TRAIL and exhibit stronger antitumoral properties than soluble TRAIL or TRAIL receptor agonist antibodies. This review provides an update on the association and the use of nanoparticles associated with TRAIL for cancer therapy.

TRAIL mediated signaling in pancreatic cancer

Research over the years has progressively shown substantial broadening of the tumor necrosis factor alpha- related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL)-mediated signaling landscape. Increasingly it is being realized that pancreatic cancer is a multifaceted and genomically complex disease. Suppression of tumor suppressors, overexpression of oncogenes, epigenetic silencing, and loss of apoptosis are some of the extensively studied underlying mechanisms. Rapidly accumulating in vitro and in vivo evidence has started to shed light on the resistance mechanisms in pancreatic cancer cells. More interestingly a recent research has opened new horizons of miRNA regulation by DR5 in pancreatic cancer cells. It has been shown that DR5 interacts with the core microprocessor components Drosha and DGCR8, thus impairing processing of primary let-7. Xenografting DR5 silenced pancreatic cancer cells in SCID-mice indicated that there was notable suppression of tumor growth. There is a paradigm shift in our current understanding of TRAIL mediated signaling in pancreatic cancer cells that is now adding new layers of concepts into the existing scientific evidence. In this review we have attempted to provide an overview of recent advances in TRAIL mediated signaling in pancreatic cancer as evidenced byfindings of in vitro and in vivo analyses. Furthermore, we discuss nanotechnological advances with emphasis on PEG-TRAIL and four-arm PEG cross-linked hyaluronic acid (HA) hydrogels to improve availability of TRAIL at target sites.

A biomimetic enzyme modified electrode for H2O2 highly sensitive detection

An efficient catalyst based on artificial bionic peroxidase was synthesized for electrocatalysis. A poly(ethyleneimine)/Au nanoparticle composite (PEI-AuNP) was prepared and it was then linked to hemin via a coupling reaction between carboxyl groups in hemin and amino groups in PEI without the activation of a carboxyl group by carbodiimide. Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy verified the formation of amido bonds within the structure. The presence of AuNPs contributed greatly in establishing the amido bonds within the composite. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and UV-visible spectroscopy were also used to characterize the PEI-AuNP-hemin catalyst. PEI-AuNP-hemin exhibited intrinsic peroxidase-like catalytic activities. The PEI-AuNP-hemin deposited on a glass carbon electrode had strong sensing for H2O2 with a well-defined linear relationship between the amperometric response and H2O2 concentration in the range from 1 μM to 0.25 mM. The detection limit was 0.247 nM with a high sensitivity of 0.347 mA mM(-1) cm(-2). The peroxidase-like catalytic activity of PEI-AuNP-hemin is discussed in relation to its microstructure. The study suggests that PEI-AuNP-hemin may have promising application prospects in biocatalysis and bioelectronics.

Magnetic field contributes to the cellular uptake for effective therapy with magnetofection using plasmid DNA encoding against Mcam in B16F10 melanoma in vivo

AIM

We explored the distribution and cellular uptake of intratumorally injected SPIONs-PAA-PEI-pDNA (magnetofection complexes), and antitumor effectiveness of magnetofection with plasmid DNA encoding short hairpin RNA (shRNA) against Mcam (pDNA(anti-MCAM)).

MATERIALS & METHODS

Analyses were made based on the histology, ultrastructure and quantitative measurements of magnetofection complexes, and quantification of the antitumor effectiveness in B16F10 melanoma in vivo.

RESULTS

Injected magnetofection complexes were distributed around the injection site. Exposure of tumors to external magnetic field contributed to the uptake of magnetofection complexes from extracellular matrix into melanoma cells. Three consecutive magnetofections of tumors with pDNA(anti-MCAM) resulted in significant reduction of tumor volume.

CONCLUSION

Magnetofection is effective for gene delivery to melanoma tumors, but requires a magnetic field for cellular uptake and antitumor effect.

Antitumor effect of TRAIL on oral squamous cell carcinoma using magnetic nanoparticle-mediated gene expression

We developed a new magnetic nanovector to improve the efficiency and targeting of transgene therapy for oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC). Positively charged polymer PEI-modified Fe(3)O(4) magnetic nanoparticles were tested as gene transfer vectors in the presence of a magnetic field. The Fe(3)O(4) nanoparticles were prepared by a co-precipitation method and had good dispersibility in water. These nanoparticles modified by PEI were combined with negatively charged pACTERT-EGFP via electrostatic interaction. The transfection efficiency of the magnetic nano-gene vector with the magnetic field was determined by a fluorescence-inverted microscope and flow cytometry. The results showed significant improvement compared with the control group (p < 0.05). The magnetic complexes also exhibited up to 6-times higher transfection efficiency compared with commonly used PEI or lipofectin. On the basis of these results, the antitumor effect with suicide gene therapy using pACTERT-TRAIL in vitro and vivo was evaluated. In vitro apoptosis was determined with the Annexin V-FITC Apoptosis Detection Kit. The results suggested that PEI-modified Fe(3)O(4) nanoparticles could mediate the killing of Tca83 cells. Furthermore, treatment with pACTERT-TRAIL delivered by magnetic nanoparticles showed a significant cytostatic effect through the induction of apoptosis in a xenograft model. This indicates that magnetic nano-gene vectors could improve the transgene efficiency for Tca83 cells and could exhibit antitumor functions with the plasmid pACTERT-TRAIL. This may be a new way to treat OSCC.

Mcam Silencing With RNA Interference Using Magnetofection has Antitumor Effect in Murine Melanoma

The melanoma cell adhesion molecule (MCAM) is involved in melanoma development and its progression, including invasiveness, metastatic potential and angiogenesis. Therefore, MCAM represents a potential target for gene therapy of melanoma, whose expression could be hindered with posttranscriptional specific gene silencing with RNA interference technology. In this study, we constructed a plasmid DNA encoding short hairpin RNA against MCAM (pMCAM) to explore the antitumor and antiangiogenic effects. The experiments were performed in vitro on murine melanoma and endothelial cells, as well as in vivo on melanoma tumors in mice. The antiproliferative, antimigratory, antiangiogenic and antitumor effects were examined after gene therapy with pMCAM. Gene delivery was performed by magnetofection, and its efficacy compared to gene electrotransfer. Gene therapy with pMCAM has proved to be an effective approach in reducing the proliferation and migration of melanoma cells, as well as having antiangiogenic effect in endothelial cells and antitumor effect on melanoma tumors. Magnetofection as a developing nonviral gene delivery system was effective in the transfection of melanoma cells and tumors with pMCAM, but less efficient than gene electrotransfer in in vivo tumor gene therapy due to the lack of antiangiogenic effect after silencing Mcam by magnetofection.

Engineered magnetic nanoparticles for biomedical applications

In the past decades, magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) have been used in wide range of diverse applications, ranging from separation to sensing. Here, synthesis and applications of functionalized MNPs in the biomedical field are discussed, in particular in drug delivery, imaging, and cancer therapy, highlighting also recent progresses in the development of multifunctional and stimuli-responsive MNPs. The role of their size, composition, and surface functionalization is analyzed, together with their biocompatibility issues.

A facile one-pot method to synthesize a polypyrrole/hemin nanocomposite and its application in biosensor, dye removal, and photothermal therapy

In this work, we introduced a facile method for the construction of a polypyrrole/hemin (PPy/hemin) nanocomposite via one-pot chemical oxidative polymerization. In this process, a hemin molecule serving as a dopant was entrapped in the PPy nanocomposite during chemical oxidative polymerization. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and UV-visible spectroscopy results demonstrated that the PPy/hemin nanocomposite was successfully synthesized. The as-prepared nanocomposite exhibited intrinsic peroxidase-like catalytic activities, strong adsorption properties, and an excellent near-infrared (NIR) light-induced thermal effect. We utilized the nanomaterials to catalyze the oxidation of a peroxidase substrate 3,3,5,5-tetramethylbenzidine by H2O2 to the oxidized colored product which provided a colorimetric detection of glucose. As low as 50 μM glucose could be detected with a linear range from 0.05 to 8 mM. Moreover, the obtained nanocomposite also showed excellent removal efficiency for methyl orange and rhodamine B and a photothermal effect, which implied a promising application as the pollutant adsorbent and photothermal agent. The unique nature of the PPy/hemin nanocomposite makes it very promising for the fabrication of inexpensive, high-performance bioelectronic devices in the future.

Development of Magnetic Nanoparticles for Cancer Gene Therapy: A Comprehensive Review

Since they were first proposed as nonviral transfection agents for their gene-carrying capacity, magnetic nanoparticles have been studied thoroughly, both in vitro and in vivo. Great effort has been made to manufacture biocompatible magnetic nanoparticles for use in the theragnosis of cancer and other diseases. Here we survey recent advances in the study of magnetic nanoparticles, as well as the polymers and other coating layers currently available for gene therapy, their synthesis, and bioconjugation processes. In addition, we review several gene therapy models based on magnetic nanoparticles.

Breast cancer proteome takes more than two to tango on TRAIL: beat them at their own game

Breast carcinogenesis is a multidimensional disease that has resisted drug-related solutions to date because of heterogeneity, disorganized spatiotemporal behavior of signal transduction cascades, cell cycle checkpoints, cell transition, plasticity, and impaired pro-apoptotic response. These synchronized oncogenic events, including protein-protein interaction, transcriptional-regulatory, and signaling networks, trigger genomic and transcriptional disturbances in TRAIL-mediated signaling network neighborhoods. Therefore, tumor cells often acquire the ability to escape death by suppressing cell death pathways that normally function to eliminate damaged and harmful cells. This review describes the TRAIL-mediated cell death signaling pathways, the interactions between these pathways, and the ways in which these pathways are deregulated in breast cancer.