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Toutonji A, Krieg C, Borucki DM, Mandava M, Guglietta S, Tomlinson S. Mass cytometric analysis of the immune cell landscape after traumatic brain injury elucidates the role of complement and complement receptors in neurologic outcomes. Acta Neuropathol Commun 2023; 11:92. [PMID: 37308987 DOI: 10.1186/s40478-023-01583-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2023] [Accepted: 05/18/2023] [Indexed: 06/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Following traumatic brain injury (TBI), a neuroinflammatory response can persist for years and contribute to the development of chronic neurological manifestations. Complement plays a central role in post-TBI neuroinflammation, and C3 opsonins and the anaphylatoxins (C3a and C5a) have been implicated in promoting secondary injury. We used single cell mass cytometry to characterize the immune cell landscape of the brain at different time points after TBI. To specifically investigate how complement shapes the post-TBI immune cell landscape, we analyzed TBI brains in the context of CR2-Crry treatment, an inhibitor of C3 activation. We analyzed 13 immune cell types, including peripheral and brain resident cells, and assessed expression of various receptors. TBI modulated the expression of phagocytic and complement receptors on both brain resident and infiltrating peripheral immune cells, and distinct functional clusters were identified within same cell populations that emerge at different phases after TBI. In particular, a CD11c+ (CR4) microglia subpopulation continued to expand over 28 days after injury, and was the only receptor to show continuous increase over time. Complement inhibition affected the abundance of brain resident immune cells in the injured hemisphere and impacted the expression of functional receptors on infiltrating cells. A role for C5a has also been indicated in models of brain injury, and we found significant upregulation of C5aR1 on many immune cell types after TBI. However, we demonstrated experimentally that while C5aR1 is involved in the infiltration of peripheral immune cells into the brain after injury, it does not alone affect histological or behavioral outcomes. However, CR2-Crry improved post-TBI outcomes and reduced resident immune cell populations, as well as complement and phagocytic receptor expression, indicating that its neuroprotective effects are mediated upstream of C5a generation, likely via modulating C3 opsonization and complement receptor expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amer Toutonji
- College of Medicine, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, 29425, USA
| | - Carsten Krieg
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, 29425, USA
- Hollings Cancer Center, Charleston, SC, 29425, USA
| | - Davis M Borucki
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, 29425, USA
| | - Mamatha Mandava
- Immune Deficiency Cellular Therapy Program (IDCTP), National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, USA
| | - Silvia Guglietta
- Hollings Cancer Center, Charleston, SC, 29425, USA.
- Department of Regenerative Medicine and Cell Biology, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, 29425, USA.
| | - Stephen Tomlinson
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, 29425, USA.
- Ralph Johnson VA Medical Center, Charleston, SC, 29401, USA.
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2
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Amelioration of White Matter Injury Through Mitigating Ferroptosis Following Hepcidin Treatment After Spinal Cord Injury. Mol Neurobiol 2023; 60:3365-3378. [PMID: 36853431 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-023-03287-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2022] [Accepted: 02/01/2023] [Indexed: 03/01/2023]
Abstract
Spinal cord injury (SCI) usually introduces permanent or long-lasting neurological impairments. Maintaining the integrity of the limited number of white matter bundles (5-10%) preserves wholly or partially locomotor following SCI. Considering that the basic structure of white matter bundles is axon wrapped by oligodendrocytes, promoting oligodendrocytes survival might be a feasible strategy for reducing white matter injury (WMI) after SCI. Oligodendrocytes are rich in unsaturated fatty acid and susceptible to ferroptosis-induced damage. Hence, exploring method to reduce ferroptosis is supposed to expedite oligodendrocytes survival, thereafter mitigating WMI to facilitate functional recovery post-SCI. Here, the results indicated the administration of hepcidin reduced iron accumulation to promote oligodendrocytes survival and to decrease spinal cord atrophy, therefore facilitating functional recovery. Then, the WMI was evidently decreased owing to attenuating ferroptosis. Subsequently, the results revealed that the expression of divalent metal transporter 1 (DMT1) and transferrin receptor (TfR) was expressed in CC1+ cells. The expression level of DMT1 and TfR was significantly increased, while this phenomenon was obviously neutralized with the administration of hepcidin in the epicenter of spinal cord after SCI. Afterward, the application of hepcidin downregulated reactive oxygen species (ROS) overload, which was evidently increased with the treatment of 20 μM FeCl3, therefore increasing cell viability and reducing lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) activity through downregulating the expression of DMT1 and TfR to inhibit ferroptosis in oligodendrocyte progenitor cells (OPCs). The present study provides evidence that the application of hepcidin facilitates oligodendrocytes survival to alleviate WMI via reducing the expression of DMT1 and TfR.
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Zheng J, Wang JJ, Ma HM, Shen MQ, Qian ZM, Bao YX. Norcantharidin down-regulates iron contents in the liver and spleen of lipopolysaccharide-treated mice. Redox Rep 2022; 27:119-127. [PMID: 35735222 PMCID: PMC9246006 DOI: 10.1080/13510002.2022.2088011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective The inhibiting effect of Norcantharidin (NCTD) on IL-6 (interleukin-6) and STAT3 and the involvement of the IL-6/STAT3 pathway in hepcidin expression prompted us to speculate that NCTD could affect iron metabolism. Methods We examined the effects of NCTD on serum iron (SI) and transferrin (Tf) saturation, iron and ferritin light chain (FTL), transferrin receptor 1 (TfR1), divalent metal transporter 1 (DMT1), ferroportin 1 (Fpn1), iron regulatory protein 1 (IRP1) and hepcidin, as well as IL-6 and STAT3 in the liver, spleen and duodenum of mice treated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in vivo, using RT-PCR, Western blotting and immunofluorescence analysis. Results NCTD could increase SI and Tf saturation and reduce tissue iron and FTL content by affecting expression of cell-iron transport proteins TfR1, DMT1 and Fpn1. The impact of NCTD on TfR1, DMT1 and Fpn1 expression is mediated by up-regulating IRP1 and down-regulating hepcidin expression, while NCTD-induced down-regulation of hepcidin is mediated by the IL-6/STAT3 signalling pathway in LPS-treated mice. Conclusions NCTD affects iron metabolism by modifying the expression of IL-6/JAK2/STAT3/hepcidin and IRP1 and suggest that the ability of NCTD to reduce tissue iron contents may be a novel mechanism associated with the anti-cancer effects of NCTD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jie Zheng
- Research Center for Medicine and Biology, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, People's Republic of China
| | - Jiao-Jiao Wang
- Research Center for Medicine and Biology, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, People's Republic of China
| | - Hui-Min Ma
- Institute of Translational and Precision Medicine, Nantong University, Nantong, People's Republic of China
| | - Meng-Qi Shen
- Institute of Translational and Precision Medicine, Nantong University, Nantong, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhong-Ming Qian
- Institute of Translational and Precision Medicine, Nantong University, Nantong, People's Republic of China.,National Clinical Research Center for Aging and Medicine, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, People's Republic of China.,Laboratory of Neuropharmacology, Fudan University School of Pharmacy, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Yu-Xin Bao
- Research Center for Medicine and Biology, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, People's Republic of China
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Saez-Calveras N, Stuve O. The role of the complement system in Multiple Sclerosis: A review. Front Immunol 2022; 13:970486. [PMID: 36032156 PMCID: PMC9399629 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.970486] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2022] [Accepted: 07/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The complement system has been involved in the pathogenesis of multiple neuroinflammatory and neurodegenerative conditions. In this review, we evaluated the possible role of complement activation in multiple sclerosis (MS) with a focus in progressive MS, where the disease pathogenesis remains to be fully elucidated and treatment options are limited. The evidence for the involvement of the complement system in the white matter plaques and gray matter lesions of MS stems from immunohistochemical analysis of post-mortem MS brains, in vivo serum and cerebrospinal fluid biomarker studies, and animal models of Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis (EAE). Complement knock-out studies in these animal models have revealed that this system may have a “double-edge sword” effect in MS. On the one hand, complement proteins may aid in promoting the clearance of myelin degradation products and other debris through myeloid cell-mediated phagocytosis. On the other, its aberrant activation may lead to demyelination at the rim of progressive MS white matter lesions as well as synapse loss in the gray matter. The complement system may also interact with known risk factors of MS, including as Epstein Barr Virus (EBV) infection, and perpetuate the activation of CNS self-reactive B cell populations. With the mounting evidence for the involvement of complement in MS, the development of complement modulating therapies for this condition is appealing. Herein, we also reviewed the pharmacological complement inhibitors that have been tested in MS animal models as well as in clinical trials for other neurologic diseases. The potential use of these agents, such as the C5-binding antibody eculizumab in MS will require a detailed understanding of the role of the different complement effectors in this disease and the development of better CNS delivery strategies for these compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nil Saez-Calveras
- Department of Neurology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, United States
| | - Olaf Stuve
- Department of Neurology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, United States
- Neurology Section, Veterans Affairs (VA) North Texas Health Care System, Dallas, TX, United States
- *Correspondence: Olaf Stuve,
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5
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Carvalho K, Schartz ND, Balderrama-Gutierrez G, Liang HY, Chu SH, Selvan P, Gomez-Arboledas A, Petrisko TJ, Fonseca MI, Mortazavi A, Tenner AJ. Modulation of C5a-C5aR1 signaling alters the dynamics of AD progression. J Neuroinflammation 2022; 19:178. [PMID: 35820938 PMCID: PMC9277945 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-022-02539-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2022] [Accepted: 06/23/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The complement system is part of the innate immune system that clears pathogens and cellular debris. In the healthy brain, complement influences neurodevelopment and neurogenesis, synaptic pruning, clearance of neuronal blebs, recruitment of phagocytes, and protects from pathogens. However, excessive downstream complement activation that leads to generation of C5a, and C5a engagement with its receptor C5aR1, instigates a feed-forward loop of inflammation, injury, and neuronal death, making C5aR1 a potential therapeutic target for neuroinflammatory disorders. C5aR1 ablation in the Arctic (Arc) model of Alzheimer's disease protects against cognitive decline and neuronal injury without altering amyloid plaque accumulation. METHODS To elucidate the effects of C5a-C5aR1 signaling on AD pathology, we crossed Arc mice with a C5a-overexpressing mouse (ArcC5a+) and tested hippocampal memory. RNA-seq was performed on hippocampus and cortex from Arc, ArcC5aR1KO, and ArcC5a+ mice at 2.7-10 months and age-matched controls to assess mechanisms involved in each system. Immunohistochemistry was used to probe for protein markers of microglia and astrocytes activation states. RESULTS ArcC5a+ mice had accelerated cognitive decline compared to Arc. Deletion of C5ar1 delayed or prevented the expression of some, but not all, AD-associated genes in the hippocampus and a subset of pan-reactive and A1 reactive astrocyte genes, indicating a separation between genes induced by amyloid plaques alone and those influenced by C5a-C5aR1 signaling. Biological processes associated with AD and AD mouse models, including inflammatory signaling, microglial cell activation, and astrocyte migration, were delayed in the ArcC5aR1KO hippocampus. Interestingly, C5a overexpression also delayed the increase of some AD-, complement-, and astrocyte-associated genes, suggesting the possible involvement of neuroprotective C5aR2. However, these pathways were enhanced in older ArcC5a+ mice compared to Arc. Immunohistochemistry confirmed that C5a-C5aR1 modulation in Arc mice delayed the increase in CD11c-positive microglia, while not affecting other pan-reactive microglial or astrocyte markers. CONCLUSION C5a-C5aR1 signaling in AD largely exerts its effects by enhancing microglial activation pathways that accelerate disease progression. While C5a may have neuroprotective effects via C5aR2, engagement of C5a with C5aR1 is detrimental in AD models. These data support specific pharmacological inhibition of C5aR1 as a potential therapeutic strategy to treat AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Klebea Carvalho
- Department of Developmental & Cell Biology, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697 USA
| | - Nicole D. Schartz
- Department of Molecular Biology & Biochemistry, University of California, Irvine, 3205 McGaugh Hall, Irvine, CA 92697-3900 USA
| | | | - Heidi Y. Liang
- Department of Developmental & Cell Biology, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697 USA
| | - Shu-Hui Chu
- Department of Molecular Biology & Biochemistry, University of California, Irvine, 3205 McGaugh Hall, Irvine, CA 92697-3900 USA
| | - Purnika Selvan
- Department of Molecular Biology & Biochemistry, University of California, Irvine, 3205 McGaugh Hall, Irvine, CA 92697-3900 USA
| | - Angela Gomez-Arboledas
- Department of Molecular Biology & Biochemistry, University of California, Irvine, 3205 McGaugh Hall, Irvine, CA 92697-3900 USA
| | - Tiffany J. Petrisko
- Department of Molecular Biology & Biochemistry, University of California, Irvine, 3205 McGaugh Hall, Irvine, CA 92697-3900 USA
| | - Maria I. Fonseca
- Department of Molecular Biology & Biochemistry, University of California, Irvine, 3205 McGaugh Hall, Irvine, CA 92697-3900 USA
| | - Ali Mortazavi
- Department of Developmental & Cell Biology, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697 USA
| | - Andrea J. Tenner
- Department of Molecular Biology & Biochemistry, University of California, Irvine, 3205 McGaugh Hall, Irvine, CA 92697-3900 USA
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA USA
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of California, Irvine, School of Medicine, Irvine, CA USA
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6
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Cui CS, Kumar V, Gorman DM, Clark RJ, Lee JD, Woodruff TM. In Vivo Pharmacodynamic Method to Assess Complement C5a Receptor Antagonist Efficacy. ACS Pharmacol Transl Sci 2022; 5:41-51. [PMID: 35059568 DOI: 10.1021/acsptsci.1c00227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
The complement C5a receptor 1 (C5aR1) has been studied as a potential therapeutic target for autoimmune and inflammatory diseases, with several drug candidates identified. Understanding the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of a drug candidate is a crucial preclinical step that allows for a greater understanding of a compound's in vivo biodistribution and target engagement to assist in clinical dose selection and dosing frequency. However, few in vivo pharmacodynamic methods have been described for C5a inhibitors. In this study, we, therefore, developed a complete in vivo pharmacodynamic assay in mice and applied this method to the peptide-based C5aR1 antagonists PMX53 and JPE-1375. Intravenous administration of recombinant mouse C5a induced rapid neutrophil mobilization and plasma TNF elevation over a 60 min period. By using C5a receptor-deficient mice, we demonstrated that this response was driven primarily through C5aR1. We next identified using this model that both PMX53 and JPE-1375 have similar in vivo working doses that can inhibit C5aR1-mediated neutrophilia and cytokine production in a dose as low as 1 mg/kg following intravenous injection. However, the in vivo active duration for PMX53 lasted for up to 6 h, significantly longer than that for JPE-1375 (<2 h). Pharmacokinetic analysis demonstrated rapid plasma distribution and elimination of both compounds, although PMX53 had a longer half-life, which allowed for the development of an accurate pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic model. Overall, our study developed a robust in vivo pharmacodynamic model for C5aR1 inhibitors in mice that may assist in preclinical translational studies of therapeutic drug candidates targeting C5a and its receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cedric S Cui
- School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - Vinod Kumar
- School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - Declan M Gorman
- School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - Richard J Clark
- School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - John D Lee
- School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - Trent M Woodruff
- School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia.,Queensland Brain Institute, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia
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7
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dos Santos e Santos C, Welch BA, Edwards SR, Harris KK, Duncan BC, Himel AR, Grayson BE. Immune and Metabolic Biomarkers in a Rodent Model of Spinal Cord Contusion. Global Spine J 2022; 12:110-120. [PMID: 32964731 PMCID: PMC8965303 DOI: 10.1177/2192568220950337] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
STUDY DESIGN Basic science animal research study. OBJECTIVES Using T10 spinal contused rats, we sought to identify molecular and circulating, metabolic and immune biomarkers during the subchronic and chronic recovery periods that may inform us concerning neurorehabilitation. METHODS Gene expression of the cord and ELISA were performed in 28 and 100 days in T10 injured rats and compared to sham-injured rats. Hundred-day injured rats were placed on either a low-fat or high-fat diet following the recovery phase. Linear regression analysis was performed between markers and locomotor score, body weight, body composition, and blood cholesterol and triglycerides. RESULTS Gene expression in the thoracic cord for complement marker, C1QC, dendritic cell marker, ITGAX, and cholesterol biosynthesis genes, FDFT1, HMCGR, LDLR, and SREBP1, were significantly associated with BBB score, body weight, composition, and other metabolic parameters. Circulating levels of these proteins, however, did not vary by injury or predict the level of locomotor recovery. CONCLUSIONS Identification of reliable circulating biomarkers that are durable and based on level of spinal injury are complicated by immune and metabolic comorbidities. Continued work is necessary to identify stable markers of disease progression.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Bernadette E. Grayson
- University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, MS, USA,Bernadette E. Grayson, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Department of Neurobiology and Anatomical Sciences, 2500 North State Street, Jackson, MS 39216, USA.
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Ferrostatin-1 Alleviates White Matter Injury Via Decreasing Ferroptosis Following Spinal Cord Injury. Mol Neurobiol 2021; 59:161-176. [PMID: 34635980 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-021-02571-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2021] [Accepted: 09/15/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Spinal cord injury (SCI), a devastating neurological impairment, usually imposes a long-term psychological stress and high socioeconomic burden for the sufferers and their family. Recent researchers have paid arousing attention to white matter injury and the underlying mechanism following SCI. Ferroptosis has been revealed to be associated with diverse diseases including stroke, cancer, and kidney degeneration. Ferrostatin-1, a potent inhibitor of ferroptosis, has been illustrated to curb ferroptosis in neurons, subsequently improving functional recovery after traumatic brain injury (TBI) and SCI. However, the role of ferroptosis in white matter injury and the therapeutic effect of ferrostatin-1 on SCI are still unknown. Here, our results indicated that ferroptosis played a pivotal role in the secondary white matter injury, and ferrostatin-1 could reduce iron and reactive oxygen species (ROS) accumulation and downregulate the ferroptosis-related genes and its products of IREB2 and PTGS2 to further inhibit ferroptosis in oligodendrocyte, finally reducing white matter injury and promoting functional recovery following SCI in rats. Meanwhile, the results demonstrated that ferrostatin-1 held the potential of inhibiting the activation of reactive astrocyte and microglia. Mechanically, the present study deciphers the potential mechanism of white matter damage, which enlarges the therapeutic effects of ferrostatin-1 on SCI and even in other central nervous system (CNS) diseases existing ferroptosis.
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9
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Wu XM, Qian C, Jiang F, Bao YX, Qian ZM, Ke Y. The involvement of nuclear factor-κB in astroprotection against ischemia-reperfusion injury by ischemia-preconditioned neurons. J Cell Physiol 2021; 236:4515-4527. [PMID: 33442879 DOI: 10.1002/jcp.30168] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2020] [Revised: 10/21/2020] [Accepted: 11/06/2020] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Ischemic preconditioned (IP) neurons protect astrocytes against ischemia/reperfusion (I/R)-induced injury by inhibiting oxidative stress. However, the relevant mechanisms are unknown. Based on the role of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) in cell survival and adaption to oxidative stress, we hypothesized that NF-κB might be associated with astroprotection induced by IP neurons via upregulation of antioxidant enzymes. Here, we investigated the effects of IP neurons on NF-κB activation, cell viability, reactive oxygen species (ROS), expression of antioxidant enzymes, erythropoietin (EPO), and tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α), in the presence or absence of BAY11-7082 (an NF-κB inhibitor), anti-EPO, and anti-TNF-α antibodies, in astrocytes treated with or without I/R. We found that IP neurons could keep NF-κB activation at a relatively higher but beneficial level, and in turn, upregulated the activity of antioxidant enzymes and hence enhanced cell viability and reduced ROS in I/R treated astrocytes. The results collectively indicated that IP neurons are able to significantly inhibit the I/R-induced NF-κB overactivation, probably via EPO and TNF-α, being essential for IP neuron-induced astroprotection under the conditions of I/R. We concluded that NF-κB-mediated antioxidative stress is one of the mechanisms by which IP neurons protect astrocytes against I/R injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao-Mei Wu
- Institute of Translational & Precision Medicine and Institute for Special Environmental Medicine, Nantong University, Nantong, Jiangsu, China
- School of Biomedical Sciences and Gerald Choa Neuroscience Centre, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, New Territories, Hong Kong
| | - Christopher Qian
- School of Biomedical Sciences and Gerald Choa Neuroscience Centre, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, New Territories, Hong Kong
| | - Fei Jiang
- Institute of Translational & Precision Medicine and Institute for Special Environmental Medicine, Nantong University, Nantong, Jiangsu, China
| | - Yu-Xin Bao
- Research Center for Medicine and Biology, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, Guizhou, China
| | - Zhong-Ming Qian
- Institute of Translational & Precision Medicine and Institute for Special Environmental Medicine, Nantong University, Nantong, Jiangsu, China
- Laboratory of Neuropharmacology, School of Pharmacy & National Clinical Research Center for Aging and Medicine, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Ya Ke
- School of Biomedical Sciences and Gerald Choa Neuroscience Centre, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, New Territories, Hong Kong
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10
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Fang S, Zhong L, Wang AQ, Zhang H, Yin ZS. Identification of Regeneration and Hub Genes and Pathways at Different Time Points after Spinal Cord Injury. Mol Neurobiol 2021; 58:2643-2662. [PMID: 33484404 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-021-02289-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2020] [Accepted: 01/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Spinal cord injury (SCI) is a neurological injury that can cause neuronal loss around the lesion site and leads to locomotive and sensory deficits. However, the underlying molecular mechanisms remain unclear. This study aimed to verify differential gene time-course expression in SCI and provide new insights for gene-level studies. We downloaded two rat expression profiles (GSE464 and GSE45006) from the Gene Expression Omnibus database, including 1 day, 3 days, 7 days, and 14 days post-SCI, along with thoracic spinal cord data for analysis. At each time point, gene integration was performed using "batch normalization." The raw data were standardized, and differentially expressed genes at the different time points versus the control were analyzed by Gene Ontology enrichment analysis, the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes pathway analysis, and gene set enrichment analysis. A protein-protein interaction network was then built and visualized. In addition, ten hub genes were identified at each time point. Among them, Gnb5, Gng8, Agt, Gnai1, and Psap lack correlation studies in SCI and deserve further investigation. Finally, we screened and analyzed genes for tissue repair, reconstruction, and regeneration and found that Anxa1, Snap25, and Spp1 were closely related to repair and regeneration after SCI. In conclusion, hub genes, signaling pathways, and regeneration genes involved in secondary SCI were identified in our study. These results may be useful for understanding SCI-related biological processes and the development of targeted intervention strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sheng Fang
- Department of Orthopedics, The First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, #218 Jixi Road, Hefei, 230022, Anhui Province, China
| | - Lin Zhong
- Department of Orthopedics, The First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, #218 Jixi Road, Hefei, 230022, Anhui Province, China
- Department of Orthopedics, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui Province, China
| | - An-Quan Wang
- Department of Orthopedics, The First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, #218 Jixi Road, Hefei, 230022, Anhui Province, China
| | - Hui Zhang
- Department of Orthopedics, The First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, #218 Jixi Road, Hefei, 230022, Anhui Province, China
| | - Zong-Sheng Yin
- Department of Orthopedics, The First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, #218 Jixi Road, Hefei, 230022, Anhui Province, China.
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Ma J, Qian C, Bao Y, Liu MY, Ma HM, Shen MQ, Li W, Wang JJ, Bao YX, Liu Y, Ke Y, Qian ZM. Apolipoprotein E deficiency induces a progressive increase in tissue iron contents with age in mice. Redox Biol 2021; 40:101865. [PMID: 33493903 PMCID: PMC7823209 DOI: 10.1016/j.redox.2021.101865] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2020] [Revised: 01/10/2021] [Accepted: 01/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Association of both iron/hepcidin and apolipoprotein E (ApoE) with development of Alzheimer disease (AD) and atherosclerosis led us to hypothesize that ApoE might be required for body iron homeostasis. Here, we demonstrated that ApoE knock-out (KO) induced a progressive accumulation of iron with age in the liver and spleen of mice. Subsequent investigations showed that the increased iron in the liver and spleen was due to phosphorylated extracellular regulated protein kinases (pERK) mediated up-regulation of transferrin receptor 1 (TfR1), and nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor-2 (Nrf2)-dependent down-regulation of ferroportin 1. Furthermore, replenishment of ApoE could partially reverse the iron-related phenotype in ApoE KO mice. The findings imply that ApoE may be essential for body iron homeostasis and also suggest that clinical late-onset diseases with unexplained iron abnormality may partly be related to deficiency or reduced expression of ApoE. Apolipoprotein E deficiency induces a progressive increase in tissue iron contents with age in mice. ApoE−/− induced a progressive accumulation of iron with age in the liver and spleen of mice. The increased iron was due to upregulation of TfR1 and downregulation of Fpn1. Replenishment of ApoE could partially reverse the iron-related phenotype in ApoE KO mice. ApoE may be essential for body iron homeostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan Ma
- Institute of Translational and Precision Medicine, Nantong University, 19 Qi Xiu Road, Nantong, 226001, China; Laboratory of Neuropharmacology of Pharmacy School, and National Clinical Research Center for Aging and Medicine of Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, 201203, China
| | - Christopher Qian
- School of Biomedical Sciences and Gerald Choa Neuroscience Centre, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, NT, Hong Kong, China
| | - Yong Bao
- Institute of Translational and Precision Medicine, Nantong University, 19 Qi Xiu Road, Nantong, 226001, China
| | - Meng-Yue Liu
- Institute of Translational and Precision Medicine, Nantong University, 19 Qi Xiu Road, Nantong, 226001, China
| | - Hui-Min Ma
- Institute of Translational and Precision Medicine, Nantong University, 19 Qi Xiu Road, Nantong, 226001, China
| | - Meng-Qi Shen
- Institute of Translational and Precision Medicine, Nantong University, 19 Qi Xiu Road, Nantong, 226001, China
| | - Wei Li
- Institute of Translational and Precision Medicine, Nantong University, 19 Qi Xiu Road, Nantong, 226001, China
| | - Jiao-Jiao Wang
- Laboratory of Neuropharmacology of Pharmacy School, and National Clinical Research Center for Aging and Medicine of Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, 201203, China; Research Center for Medicine and Biology, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, 563000, Guizhou, China
| | - Yu-Xin Bao
- Research Center for Medicine and Biology, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, 563000, Guizhou, China
| | - Yong Liu
- Department of Pain and Rehabilitation, The Second Affiliated Hospital, The Army Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Ya Ke
- School of Biomedical Sciences and Gerald Choa Neuroscience Centre, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, NT, Hong Kong, China.
| | - Zhong-Ming Qian
- Institute of Translational and Precision Medicine, Nantong University, 19 Qi Xiu Road, Nantong, 226001, China; Laboratory of Neuropharmacology of Pharmacy School, and National Clinical Research Center for Aging and Medicine of Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, 201203, China.
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12
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Keragala CB, Woodruff TM, Liu Z, Niego B, Ho H, McQuilten Z, Medcalf RL. Tissue-Type Plasminogen Activator and Tenecteplase-Mediated Increase in Blood Brain Barrier Permeability Involves Cell Intrinsic Complement. Front Neurol 2020; 11:577272. [PMID: 33363504 PMCID: PMC7753024 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2020.577272] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2020] [Accepted: 11/09/2020] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Tissue-type plasminogen activator (t-PA) has been the mainstay of therapeutic thrombolysis for patients with acute ischaemic stroke (AIS). However, t-PA can cause devastating intracerebral hemorrhage. t-PA can also influence the CNS in part by modulation of BBB permeability. Complement activation also occurs after AIS and has also been reported to increase BBB permeability. The complement components, C3 and C5, can also be activated by t-PA via plasmin formation and cell intrinsic complement may be involved in this process. Tenecteplase (TNK-tPA) is a t-PA variant with a longer plasma half-life, yet the ability of TNK-tPA to modulate the BBB and complement is less clear. Aim: To evaluate the effect of C5 and C5a-receptor 1 (C5aR1) inhibitors on t-PA- and TNK-tPA-mediated opening of the BBB. Methods: We used an in vitro model of the BBB where human brain endothelial cells and human astrocytes were co-cultured on the opposite sides of a porous membrane assembled in transwell inserts. The luminal (endothelial) compartment was stimulated with t-PA or TNK-tPA together with plasminogen, in the presence of PMX205 (a non-competitive C5aR1 antagonist), Avacopan (a competitive C5aR1 antagonist) or Eculizumab (a humanized monoclonal inhibitor of human C5). BBB permeability was assessed 5 and 24 h later. Immunofluorescence was also used to detect changes in C5 and C5aR1 expression in endothelial cells and astrocytes. Results: PMX205, but not Avacopan or Eculizumab, blocked t-PA-mediated increase in BBB permeability at both the 5 and 24 h time points. PMX205 also blocked TNK-tPA-mediated increase in BBB permeability. Immunofluorescence analysis revealed intracellular staining of C5 in both cell types. C5aR1 expression was also detected on the cell surfaces and also located intracellularly in both cell types. Conclusion: t-PA and TNK-tPA-mediated increase in BBB permeability involves C5aR1 receptor activation from cell-derived C5a. Selective inhibitors of C5aR1 may have therapeutic potential in AIS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charithani B Keragala
- Molecular Neurotrauma and Haemostasis, Australian Centre for Blood Diseases, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Trent M Woodruff
- School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Zikou Liu
- Molecular Neurotrauma and Haemostasis, Australian Centre for Blood Diseases, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Be'eri Niego
- Molecular Neurotrauma and Haemostasis, Australian Centre for Blood Diseases, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Heidi Ho
- Molecular Neurotrauma and Haemostasis, Australian Centre for Blood Diseases, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Zoe McQuilten
- Transfusion Research Unit, Department of Epidemiology and Preventative Medicine, Australian and New Zealand Intensive Care Research Centre, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Robert L Medcalf
- Molecular Neurotrauma and Haemostasis, Australian Centre for Blood Diseases, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
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13
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Yang Z, Bao Y, Chen W, He Y. Melatonin exerts neuroprotective effects by attenuating astro- and microgliosis and suppressing inflammatory response following spinal cord injury. Neuropeptides 2020; 79:102002. [PMID: 31902595 DOI: 10.1016/j.npep.2019.102002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2019] [Revised: 12/15/2019] [Accepted: 12/20/2019] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Reactive gliosis and inflammatory reaction are common pathological change to spinal cord injury (SCI). Whereas, the effects of melatonin (MT) on the astro- and microgliosis and their related inflammatory response in the injured spinal cord are not fully understood. In this study, MT's effects on the accumulation and proliferation of microglia and astrocytes and their related inflammatory response were investigated in an acute SCI model. The effects of MT on oxidative stress, neuronal survival and behavioral performance were also tested. It was found that MT treatment significantly suppressed the accumulation and the proliferation of microglia and astrocytes. Quantitative PCR data showed that MT significantly down-regulated the pro-inflammatory markers iNOS, IL-1β and TNF-α expressions. The data showed that MT led to the rise in SOD, CAT and GSH-Px contents and the decrease in MDA content. Western blotting analysis verified that MT significantly down-regulated caspase-3, Bax and GFAP expressions, up-regulated Bcl-2 expression. Compared with the SCI vehicle-treated group, the SCI MT-treated group exhibited a greater Basso Mouse Scale (BMS) locomotor rating score. On the whole, these findings implied that MT exerts its neuroprotective effects by suppressing the accumulation and the proliferation of microglia and astrocytes and reducing the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines, which might be one of the underlying mechanisms of the MT's neuroprotective effect after SCI. Accordingly, MT may be a promising therapeutic candidate for acute SCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhijie Yang
- School of Life Science and Technology, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou 730070, China.
| | - Yingying Bao
- School of Life Science and Technology, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou 730070, China
| | - Weigang Chen
- School of Life Science and Technology, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou 730070, China
| | - Yuqin He
- School of Life Science and Technology, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou 730070, China.
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14
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Lee JD, Coulthard LG, Woodruff TM. Complement dysregulation in the central nervous system during development and disease. Semin Immunol 2019; 45:101340. [PMID: 31708347 DOI: 10.1016/j.smim.2019.101340] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2019] [Revised: 10/15/2019] [Accepted: 10/24/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The complement cascade is an important arm of the immune system that plays a key role in protecting the central nervous system (CNS) from infection. Recently, it has also become clear that complement proteins have fundamental roles in the developing and aging CNS that are distinct from their roles in immunity. During neurodevelopment, complement signalling is involved in diverse processes including neural tube closure, neural progenitor proliferation and differentiation, neuronal migration, and synaptic pruning. In acute neurotrauma and ischamic brain injury, complement drives inflammation and neuronal death, but also neuroprotection and regeneration. In diseases of the aging CNS including dementias and motor neuron disease, chronic complement activation is associated with glial activation, and synapse and neuron loss. Proper regulation of complement is thus essential to allow for an appropriately developed CNS and prevention of excessive damage following neurotrauma or during neurodegeneration. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the evidence for functional roles of complement in brain formation, and its dysregulation during acute and chronic disease. We also provide working models for how complement can lead to neurodevelopmental disorders such as schizophrenia and autism, and either protect, or propagate neurodegenerative diseases including Alzheimer's disease and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- John D Lee
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Liam G Coulthard
- Royal Brisbane and Women's Hospital, Herston, Australia; School of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Trent M Woodruff
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia.
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15
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Zhao C, Zhou X, Qiu J, Xin D, Li T, Chu X, Yuan H, Wang H, Wang Z, Wang D. Exosomes Derived From Bone Marrow Mesenchymal Stem Cells Inhibit Complement Activation In Rats With Spinal Cord Injury. DRUG DESIGN DEVELOPMENT AND THERAPY 2019; 13:3693-3704. [PMID: 31695336 PMCID: PMC6817353 DOI: 10.2147/dddt.s209636] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2019] [Accepted: 10/03/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Purpose Spinal cord injury (SCI) is a relatively common, devastating traumatic condition resulting in permanent disability. In this study, the use of exosomes derived from bone mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs-Exo) as a cell-free therapy for the treatment of SCI in rats was investigated to gain insights into their mechanisms of action. Methods Rats were randomly divided into three groups, Sham (treated with PBS), SCI (SCI injury + PBS) and SCI + Exo (SCI injury + BMSCs-Exo). Changes in the complement system between the three groups were assessed with the use of proteomics. The proteomic data were verified using reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). In addition, the distributions of BMSCs-Exo in rats with SCI were detected by immunofluorescence. Moreover, SCI-activated NF-κB levels were determined using Western blot. Results SCI insult increased complement levels, including C4, C5, C6, C4 binding protein alpha and complement factor H. In contrast, the SCI + BMSCs-Exo group exhibited attenuated SCI-induced complement levels. Immunofluorescence assay results revealed that BMSCs-Exo mainly accumulated at the spinal cord injury site and were bound to microglia cells. Western blot analysis of tissue lysates showed that BMSCs-Exo treatment also inhibited SCI-activated nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB). Conclusion BMSCs-Exo play a protective role in spinal cord injury by inhibiting complement mRNA synthesis and release and by inhibiting SCI-activated NF-κB by binding to microglia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chuanliang Zhao
- Department of Spinal Surgery, Shandong Provincial Hospital Affiliated to Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong, People's Republic of China.,Department of Physiology, Shandong University School of Basic Medical Sciences, Jinan, Shandong, People's Republic of China.,Department of Orthopedic, Feicheng Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Feicheng, Shandong, People's Republic of China
| | - Xin Zhou
- Department of Spinal Surgery, Shandong Provincial Hospital Affiliated to Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong, People's Republic of China.,Department of Physiology, Shandong University School of Basic Medical Sciences, Jinan, Shandong, People's Republic of China
| | - Jie Qiu
- Department of Spinal Surgery, Shandong Provincial Hospital Affiliated to Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong, People's Republic of China.,Department of Physiology, Shandong University School of Basic Medical Sciences, Jinan, Shandong, People's Republic of China
| | - Danqing Xin
- Department of Physiology, Shandong University School of Basic Medical Sciences, Jinan, Shandong, People's Republic of China
| | - Tingting Li
- Department of Physiology, Shandong University School of Basic Medical Sciences, Jinan, Shandong, People's Republic of China
| | - Xili Chu
- Department of Physiology, Shandong University School of Basic Medical Sciences, Jinan, Shandong, People's Republic of China
| | - Hongtao Yuan
- Department of Physiology, Shandong University School of Basic Medical Sciences, Jinan, Shandong, People's Republic of China
| | - Haifeng Wang
- Department of Spinal Surgery, Shandong Provincial Hospital Affiliated to Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhen Wang
- Department of Physiology, Shandong University School of Basic Medical Sciences, Jinan, Shandong, People's Republic of China
| | - Dachuan Wang
- Department of Spinal Surgery, Shandong Provincial Hospital Affiliated to Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong, People's Republic of China
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16
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Zhao P, Qian C, Chen YJ, Sheng Y, Ke Y, Qian ZM. Cystathionine β-synthase (CBS) deficiency suppresses erythropoiesis by disrupting expression of heme biosynthetic enzymes and transporter. Cell Death Dis 2019; 10:708. [PMID: 31551410 PMCID: PMC6760157 DOI: 10.1038/s41419-019-1951-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2019] [Revised: 08/08/2019] [Accepted: 08/26/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The reduced iron usage induced by the suppression of erythropoiesis is a major cause of the systemic iron overload in CBS knockout (CBS−/−) mice. However, the relevant mechanisms are unknown. Here, we examined changes in granulocyte/erythroid cell ratios, iron content, and expression of iron-metabolism proteins, including; two key enzymes involved in the heme biosynthetic pathway, ALAS2 (delta-aminolevulinate synthase 2) and FECH (ferrochelatase), a heme exporter from the cytosol and mitochondria, FLVCR (feline leukemia virus subgroup C cellular receptor) as well as EPO (erythropoietin), EPOR (erythropoietin receptor) and HIF-2α (hypoxia inducible factor-2 subunit α), in the blood, bone marrow or liver of CBS−/− (homozygous), CBS+/− (heterozygous) and CBS+/+ (Wild Type) mice. Our findings demonstrate that CBS deficiency can induce a significant reduction in the expression of ALAS2, FECH, FLVCR, HIF-2α, EPO, and EPOR as well as an increase in interleukin-6 (IL-6), hepcidin and iron content in the blood, bone marrow or liver of mice. We conclude that the suppression of erythropoiesis is mainly due to the CBS deficiency-induced disruption in the expression of heme biosynthetic enzymes and heme-transporter.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peng Zhao
- Laboratory of Neuropharmacology, Fudan University School of Pharmacy, Shanghai, 201203, China.,National Clinical Research Center for Aging and Medicine, Huashan Hospital, FudanUniversity, Shanghai, 200040, China
| | - Christopher Qian
- School of Biomedical Sciences and Gerald Choa Neuroscience Centre, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, NT, Hong Kong
| | - Yun-Jin Chen
- Laboratory of Neuropharmacology, Fudan University School of Pharmacy, Shanghai, 201203, China.,National Clinical Research Center for Aging and Medicine, Huashan Hospital, FudanUniversity, Shanghai, 200040, China
| | - Yuan Sheng
- Laboratory of Neuropharmacology, Fudan University School of Pharmacy, Shanghai, 201203, China.,National Clinical Research Center for Aging and Medicine, Huashan Hospital, FudanUniversity, Shanghai, 200040, China
| | - Ya Ke
- School of Biomedical Sciences and Gerald Choa Neuroscience Centre, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, NT, Hong Kong.
| | - Zhong-Ming Qian
- Laboratory of Neuropharmacology, Fudan University School of Pharmacy, Shanghai, 201203, China. .,National Clinical Research Center for Aging and Medicine, Huashan Hospital, FudanUniversity, Shanghai, 200040, China. .,Institute of Translational & Precision Medicine, Nantong University, Nantong, JS, 226019, China.
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17
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TGF-β Secretion by M2 Macrophages Induces Glial Scar Formation by Activating Astrocytes In Vitro. J Mol Neurosci 2019; 69:324-332. [PMID: 31327154 DOI: 10.1007/s12031-019-01361-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2019] [Accepted: 06/25/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) is a key factor that promotes fibrosis or scar formation, which could become an obstacle in the repair of impaired axons in the central nervous system (CNS) of the human body resulting from diseases or injuries. Considering that major pathological reactions occur during this process, we focused on TGF-secreting M2 macrophages to identify the interactions between M2 macrophages and astrocytes (AS) and verify the specific mechanism of fibrosis or glial scar formation. In the present study, we used the Transwell coculturing technique and found an increase in glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), neurocan, IL-13, and TGF-β expression after incubation for 48 h; the expression of these proteins decreased when additional inhibitors of the TGF-β receptor were added. We concluded that fibrosis or glial scar formation would be enhanced by the secretion of neurocan from AS, resulting from the release of TGF-β from M2 macrophages. We also used M2 macrophage-conditioned medium to further confirm this finding in a subsequent experiment. We hope that the findings in this research could provide a foundation for locating new targets for treating CNS diseases or injuries.
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18
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Carpanini SM, Torvell M, Morgan BP. Therapeutic Inhibition of the Complement System in Diseases of the Central Nervous System. Front Immunol 2019; 10:362. [PMID: 30886620 PMCID: PMC6409326 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2019.00362] [Citation(s) in RCA: 129] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2018] [Accepted: 02/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The complement system plays critical roles in development, homeostasis, and regeneration in the central nervous system (CNS) throughout life; however, complement dysregulation in the CNS can lead to damage and disease. Complement proteins, regulators, and receptors are widely expressed throughout the CNS and, in many cases, are upregulated in disease. Genetic and epidemiological studies, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and plasma biomarker measurements and pathological analysis of post-mortem tissues have all implicated complement in multiple CNS diseases including multiple sclerosis (MS), neuromyelitis optica (NMO), neurotrauma, stroke, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), and Huntington's disease (HD). Given this body of evidence implicating complement in diverse brain diseases, manipulating complement in the brain is an attractive prospect; however, the blood-brain barrier (BBB), critical to protect the brain from potentially harmful agents in the circulation, is also impermeable to current complement-targeting therapeutics, making drug design much more challenging. For example, antibody therapeutics administered systemically are essentially excluded from the brain. Recent protocols have utilized "Trojan horse" techniques to transport therapeutics across the BBB or used osmotic shock or ultrasound to temporarily disrupt the BBB. Most research to date exploring the impact of complement inhibition on CNS diseases has been in animal models, and some of these studies have generated convincing data; for example, in models of MS, NMO, and stroke. There have been a few recent clinical trials of available anti-complement drugs in CNS diseases associated with BBB impairment, for example the use of the anti-C5 monoclonal antibody (mAb) eculizumab in NMO, but for most CNS diseases there have been no human trials of anti-complement therapies. Here we will review the evidence implicating complement in diverse CNS disorders, from acute, such as traumatic brain or spine injury, to chronic, including demyelinating, neuroinflammatory, and neurodegenerative diseases. We will discuss the particular problems of drug access into the CNS and explore ways in which anti-complement therapies might be tailored for CNS disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah M Carpanini
- UK Dementia Research Institute, Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom
| | - Megan Torvell
- UK Dementia Research Institute, Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom
| | - Bryan Paul Morgan
- UK Dementia Research Institute, Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom.,Division of Infection and Immunity, School of Medicine, Systems Immunity Research Institute, Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom
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19
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Li W, Zhang G, Guan T, Zhang X, Khosrozadeh A, Xing M, Kong J. Manipulable Permeability of Nanogel Encapsulation on Cells Exerts Protective Effect against TNF-α-Induced Apoptosis. ACS Biomater Sci Eng 2018; 4:2825-2835. [DOI: 10.1021/acsbiomaterials.8b00654] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Guohui Zhang
- Department of Forensic Medicine, Hebei North University, Zhangjiakou 075000, China
| | | | | | | | | | - Jiming Kong
- Department of Forensic Medicine, Hebei North University, Zhangjiakou 075000, China
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20
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Kumar V, Lee JD, Clark RJ, Woodruff TM. Development and validation of a LC-MS/MS assay for pharmacokinetic studies of complement C5a receptor antagonists PMX53 and PMX205 in mice. Sci Rep 2018; 8:8101. [PMID: 29802264 PMCID: PMC5970165 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-26387-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2017] [Accepted: 05/11/2018] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
PMX53 and PMX205 are cyclic hexapeptide inhibitors of complement C5a receptors (C5aR1), that are widely used to study C5aR1 pathobiology in mouse models of disease. Despite their widespread use, limited information regarding their pharmacokinetics have been reported. Here, a bioanalytical method for the quantitative determination of PMX53 and PMX205 in plasma, brain and spinal cord of mice was developed using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) techniques. The LC-MS/MS method was validated in all three matrices according to regulatory guidelines and successfully applied to pharmacokinetic studies of PMX53 and PMX205 in C57BL/6 J mice following intravenous administration. The developed method was highly sensitive and sufficiently accurate with a lower limit of quantification within the range of 3-6 ng/ml in extracted plasma samples and 3-6 ng/g in processed tissue samples, which outperforms previously published LC-MS/MS methods. The results thus support the suitability, reliability, reproducibility and sensitivity of this validated technique. This method can therefore be applied to perform a complete pre-clinical investigation of PMX53 and PMX205 pharmacokinetics in mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vinod Kumar
- School of Biomedical Sciences, the University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, 4072, Australia
| | - John D Lee
- School of Biomedical Sciences, the University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, 4072, Australia
- University of Queensland Centre for Clinical Research, the University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, 4029, Australia
| | - Richard J Clark
- School of Biomedical Sciences, the University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, 4072, Australia
| | - Trent M Woodruff
- School of Biomedical Sciences, the University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, 4072, Australia.
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21
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Hao M, Ji XR, Chen H, Zhang W, Zhang LC, Zhang LH, Tang PF, Lu N. Cell cycle and complement inhibitors may be specific for treatment of spinal cord injury in aged and young mice: Transcriptomic analyses. Neural Regen Res 2018; 13:518-527. [PMID: 29623939 PMCID: PMC5900517 DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.226405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Previous studies have reported age-specific pathological and functional outcomes in young and aged patients suffering spinal cord injury, but the mechanisms remain poorly understood. In this study, we examined mice with spinal cord injury. Gene expression profiles from the Gene Expression Omnibus database (accession number GSE93561) were used, including spinal cord samples from 3 young injured mice (2-3-months old, induced by Impactor at Th9 level) and 3 control mice (2-3-months old, no treatment), as well as 2 aged injured mice (15-18-months old, induced by Impactor at Th9 level) and 2 control mice (15-18-months old, no treatment). Differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in spinal cord tissue from injured and control mice were identified using the Linear Models for Microarray data method, with a threshold of adjusted P < 0.05 and |logFC(fold change)| > 1.5. Protein-protein interaction networks were constructed using data from the STRING database, followed by module analysis by Cytoscape software to screen crucial genes. Kyoto encyclopedia of genes and genomes pathway and Gene Ontology enrichment analyses were performed to investigate the underlying functions of DEGs using Database for Annotation, Visualization and Integrated Discovery. Consequently, 1,604 and 1,153 DEGs were identified between injured and normal control mice in spinal cord tissue of aged and young mice, respectively. Furthermore, a Venn diagram showed that 960 DEGs were shared among aged and young mice, while 644 and 193 DEGs were specific to aged and young mice, respectively. Functional enrichment indicates that shared DEGs are involved in osteoclast differentiation, extracellular matrix-receptor interaction, nuclear factor-kappa B signaling pathway, and focal adhesion. Unique genes for aged and young injured groups were involved in the cell cycle (upregulation of PLK1) and complement (upregulation of C3) activation, respectively. These findings were confirmed by functional analysis of genes in modules (common, 4; aged, 2; young, 1) screened from protein-protein interaction networks. Accordingly, cell cycle and complement inhibitors may be specific treatments for spinal cord injury in aged and young mice, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ming Hao
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, General Hospital of People's Liberation Army (301 Hospital), Beijing, China
| | - Xin-Ran Ji
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, General Hospital of People's Liberation Army (301 Hospital), Beijing, China
| | - Hua Chen
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, General Hospital of People's Liberation Army (301 Hospital), Beijing, China
| | - Wei Zhang
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, General Hospital of People's Liberation Army (301 Hospital), Beijing, China
| | - Li-Cheng Zhang
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, General Hospital of People's Liberation Army (301 Hospital), Beijing, China
| | - Li-Hai Zhang
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, General Hospital of People's Liberation Army (301 Hospital), Beijing, China
| | - Pei-Fu Tang
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, General Hospital of People's Liberation Army (301 Hospital), Beijing, China
| | - Ning Lu
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, General Hospital of People's Liberation Army (301 Hospital), Beijing, China
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22
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Cheng Q, Sun GJ, Liu SB, Yang Q, Li XM, Li XB, Liu G, Zhao JN, Zhao MG. A novel translocator protein 18 kDa ligand, ZBD-2, exerts neuroprotective effects against acute spinal cord injury. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol 2017; 43:930-8. [PMID: 27292096 DOI: 10.1111/1440-1681.12606] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2016] [Revised: 05/26/2016] [Accepted: 06/09/2016] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Traumatic spinal cord injury (SCI) happens accidently and often leads to motor dysfunction due to a series of biochemical and pathological events and damage, either temporarily or permanently. Translocator protein 18 (TSPO) has been found to be involved in the synthesis of endogenous neurosteroids which have multiple effects on neurons, but the internal mechanisms are not clear. N-benzyl-N-ethyl-2-(7,8-oxo-2-phenyl-9H-purin-9-yl) acetamide (ZBD-2), a newly reported ligand of TSPO, shows some neuroprotective effect against focal cerebral ischemia in vivo and NMDA-induced neurotoxicity in vitro. The present study aims to examine the role of ZBD-2 in SCI mice and elucidate the underlying molecular mechanisms. The SCI model was established by crushing spinal cord. ZBD-2 (10 mg/kg) significantly enhanced the hindlimb locomotor functions after SCI and decreased the tissue damage and conserved the white matter of the spinal cord. High-dose ZBD-2 alleviated the oxidative stress induced by SCI and regulated the imbalance between NR2B-containing NMDA and GABA receptors by increasing the levels of GAD67 in the spinal cord of SCI mice. Additionally, ZBD-2 (10 mg/kg) increased phosphorylated Akt (p-Akt) and decreased the ratio of Bax/Bcl-2. These results demonstrate that ZBD-2 performs neuroprotection against SCI through regulating the synaptic transmission and the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiang Cheng
- Department of Orthopedics, Jinling Hospital, Clinical School of Nanjing, Second Military Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Guo-Jing Sun
- Department of Orthopedics, Jinling Hospital, Clinical School of Nanjing, Second Military Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Shui-Bing Liu
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, China
| | - Qi Yang
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, China
| | - Xiao-Ming Li
- Department of Orthopedics, Jinling Hospital, Clinical School of Nanjing, Second Military Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Xu-Bo Li
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, China
| | - Gang Liu
- Department of Orthopedics, Jinling Hospital, Clinical School of Nanjing, Second Military Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Jian-Ning Zhao
- Department of Orthopedics, Jinling Hospital, Clinical School of Nanjing, Second Military Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Ming-Gao Zhao
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, China
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Wang J, Yang C, Zhao Q, Zhu Z, Li Y, Yang P. Microglia activation induced by serum of SLE patients. J Neuroimmunol 2017; 310:135-142. [PMID: 28778438 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2017.07.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2017] [Revised: 06/30/2017] [Accepted: 07/17/2017] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
To investigate the potential involvement of microglia in the neuropathology of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), we examined whether SLE patient sera could activate BV2 microglia in vitro. Exposure to SLE patient sera resulted in morphological changes in the microglia, an increase in MHC II and CD86 protein expression, and an obvious release of nitric oxide and proinflammatory cytokines. However, the SLE sera did not induce a specific change in the production of immunoregulatory cytokines. Inactivating complements or neutralizing proinflammatory cytokines in the SLE sera did not suppress microglial activation. Our results highlight the potential role of microglia in neuroinflammation in SLE patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianing Wang
- Department of Rheumatology and Immunology, First Affiliated Hospital, China Medical University, Shenyang 110001, People's Republic of China
| | - Chunshu Yang
- Department of 1st Cancer Institute, First Affiliated Hospital, China Medical University, Shenyang 110001, People's Republic of China
| | - Qi Zhao
- Department of Rheumatology and Immunology, First Affiliated Hospital, China Medical University, Shenyang 110001, People's Republic of China
| | - Ziwei Zhu
- Department of Rheumatology and Immunology, First Affiliated Hospital, China Medical University, Shenyang 110001, People's Republic of China
| | - Yujia Li
- Department of Rheumatology and Immunology, First Affiliated Hospital, China Medical University, Shenyang 110001, People's Republic of China
| | - Pingting Yang
- Department of Rheumatology and Immunology, First Affiliated Hospital, China Medical University, Shenyang 110001, People's Republic of China.
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Biggins PJC, Brennan FH, Taylor SM, Woodruff TM, Ruitenberg MJ. The Alternative Receptor for Complement Component 5a, C5aR2, Conveys Neuroprotection in Traumatic Spinal Cord Injury. J Neurotrauma 2017; 34:2075-2085. [PMID: 28173736 DOI: 10.1089/neu.2016.4701] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
This study investigated the role of the alternative receptor for complement activation fragment C5a, C5aR2, in secondary inflammatory pathology after contusive spinal cord injury (SCI) in mice. C5ar2-/- mice exhibited decreased intraparenchymal tumor necrosis factor alpha and interleukin-6 acutely post-injury, but these reductions did not translate into improved outcomes. We show that loss of C5aR2 leads to increased lesion volumes, reduced myelin sparing, and significantly worsened recovery from SCI in C5ar2-/- animals compared to wild-type (WT) controls. Loss of C5aR2 did not alter leukocyte mobilization from the bone marrow in response to SCI, and neutrophil recruitment/presence at the lesion site was also not different between genotypes. Acute treatment of SCI mice with the selective C5aR1 antagonist, PMX205, improved SCI outcomes, compared to vehicle controls, and, importantly, fully alleviated the worsened recovery of C5ar2-/- mice compared to their WT counterparts. Collectively, these findings indicate that C5aR2 is neuroprotective and a novel target to restrain injurious C5a signaling after a major neurotraumatic event.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick J C Biggins
- 1 School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Queensland , Brisbane, Australia
| | - Faith H Brennan
- 1 School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Queensland , Brisbane, Australia
| | - Stephen M Taylor
- 1 School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Queensland , Brisbane, Australia
| | - Trent M Woodruff
- 1 School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Queensland , Brisbane, Australia
| | - Marc J Ruitenberg
- 1 School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Queensland , Brisbane, Australia .,2 Queensland Brain Institute, The University of Queensland , Brisbane, Australia .,3 Trauma, Critical Care and Recovery, Brisbane Diamantina Health Partners , Brisbane, Australia
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Yang Z, Xie W, Ju F, khan A, Zhang S. In vivo two-photon imaging reveals a role of progesterone in reducing axonal dieback after spinal cord injury in mice. Neuropharmacology 2017; 116:30-37. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2016.12.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2016] [Revised: 11/29/2016] [Accepted: 12/09/2016] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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26
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Yuan J, Liu W, Zhu H, Chen Y, Zhang X, Li L, Chu W, Wen Z, Feng H, Lin J. Curcumin inhibits glial scar formation by suppressing astrocyte-induced inflammation and fibrosis in vitro and in vivo. Brain Res 2016; 1655:90-103. [PMID: 27865778 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2016.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2016] [Revised: 10/13/2016] [Accepted: 11/04/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Spinal cord injury (SCI) leads to glial scar formation by astrocytes, which severely hinders neural regeneration. Curcumin (cur) can inhibit glial scar formation, but the underlying mechanism is not fully understood. Using both in vivo and in vitro experiments, the current study investigated the phenotypic transformation of astrocytes following cur and siRNA intervention during the processes of inflammation and fibrosis and determined details of the relationship between cur treatment and the glial scar components GFAP and CSPG. We found that cur and NF-κb p65 siRNA could inhibit astrocyte activation through suppressing NF-κb signaling pathway, which led to down-regulate the expression of chemokines MCP-1, RANTES and CXCL10 released by astrocytes and decreased macrophage and T-cell infiltration, thus reducing the inflammation in the glial scar. In addition, silencing SOX-9 may reduce the deposition of extracellular matrix CSPG; whereas its over-expression could increase the CSPG expression. Cur suppressedSOX-9-inducedCSPG deposition, reduced α-SMA (an important symbol of fibrosis) expression in astrocytes, altered astrocyte phenotype, and inhibited glial scar formation by regulating fibrosis. This study confirmed that cur could regulate both the NF-κb and SOX9 signaling pathways and reduce the expression of intracellular and extracellular glial scar components through dual-target regulating both inflammation and fibrosis after SCI in the rat. This study provides an important hypothesis centered on the dual inhibition of intracellular and extracellular glial scar components as a treatment strategy for SCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jichao Yuan
- Department of Neurosurgery, Institute of Neurosurgery, Key Laboratory of Neurotrauma Prevention and Treatment, Southwest Hospital, Third Military Medical University, 29 Gaotanyan Street, Chongqing 400038, China.
| | - Wei Liu
- Department of Neurosurgery, Institute of Neurosurgery, Key Laboratory of Neurotrauma Prevention and Treatment, Southwest Hospital, Third Military Medical University, 29 Gaotanyan Street, Chongqing 400038, China.
| | - Haitao Zhu
- Department of Neurosurgery, Institute of Neurosurgery, Key Laboratory of Neurotrauma Prevention and Treatment, Southwest Hospital, Third Military Medical University, 29 Gaotanyan Street, Chongqing 400038, China.
| | - Yaxing Chen
- Department of Neurosurgery, Institute of Neurosurgery, Key Laboratory of Neurotrauma Prevention and Treatment, Southwest Hospital, Third Military Medical University, 29 Gaotanyan Street, Chongqing 400038, China.
| | - Xuan Zhang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Institute of Neurosurgery, Key Laboratory of Neurotrauma Prevention and Treatment, Southwest Hospital, Third Military Medical University, 29 Gaotanyan Street, Chongqing 400038, China.
| | - Lan Li
- Department of Neurosurgery, Institute of Neurosurgery, Key Laboratory of Neurotrauma Prevention and Treatment, Southwest Hospital, Third Military Medical University, 29 Gaotanyan Street, Chongqing 400038, China.
| | - Weihua Chu
- Department of Neurosurgery, Institute of Neurosurgery, Key Laboratory of Neurotrauma Prevention and Treatment, Southwest Hospital, Third Military Medical University, 29 Gaotanyan Street, Chongqing 400038, China.
| | - Zexian Wen
- Department of Neurosurgery, Institute of Neurosurgery, Key Laboratory of Neurotrauma Prevention and Treatment, Southwest Hospital, Third Military Medical University, 29 Gaotanyan Street, Chongqing 400038, China.
| | - Hua Feng
- Department of Neurosurgery, Institute of Neurosurgery, Key Laboratory of Neurotrauma Prevention and Treatment, Southwest Hospital, Third Military Medical University, 29 Gaotanyan Street, Chongqing 400038, China.
| | - Jiangkai Lin
- Department of Neurosurgery, Institute of Neurosurgery, Key Laboratory of Neurotrauma Prevention and Treatment, Southwest Hospital, Third Military Medical University, 29 Gaotanyan Street, Chongqing 400038, China.
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Abou-El-Hassan H, Zaraket H. Viral-derived complement inhibitors: current status and potential role in immunomodulation. Exp Biol Med (Maywood) 2016; 242:397-410. [PMID: 27798122 DOI: 10.1177/1535370216675772] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The complement system is one of the body's major innate immune defense mechanisms in vertebrates. Its function is to detect foreign bodies and promote their elimination through opsonisation or lysis. Complement proteins play an important role in the immunopathogenesis of several disorders. However, excessive complement activation does not confer more protection but instead leads to several autoimmune and inflammatory diseases. With inappropriate activation of the complement system, activated complement proteins and glycoproteins may damage both healthy and diseased tissues. Development of complement inhibitors represents an effective approach in controlling dysregulated complement activity and reducing disease severity, yet few studies have investigated the nature and role of novel complement inhibitory proteins of viral origin. Viral complement inhibitors have important implications in understanding the importance of complement inhibition and their role as a promising novel therapeutic approach in diseases caused by dysregulated complement function. In this review, we discuss the role and importance of complement inhibitors derived from several viruses in the scope of human inflammatory and autoimmune diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hadi Abou-El-Hassan
- 1 Faculty of Medicine, American University of Beirut Medical Center, Beirut, Lebanon.,2 Center for Infectious Diseases Research, Faculty of Medicine, American University of Beirut, Beirut, Lebanon
| | - Hassan Zaraket
- 2 Center for Infectious Diseases Research, Faculty of Medicine, American University of Beirut, Beirut, Lebanon.,3 Department of Experimental Pathology, Immunology, and Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, American University of Beirut, Beirut, Lebanon
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28
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C5a and pain development: An old molecule, a new target. Pharmacol Res 2016; 112:58-67. [DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2016.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2015] [Revised: 02/01/2016] [Accepted: 02/02/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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Cheng Q, Meng J, Wang XS, Kang WB, Tian Z, Zhang K, Liu G, Zhao JN. G-1 exerts neuroprotective effects through G protein-coupled estrogen receptor 1 following spinal cord injury in mice. Biosci Rep 2016; 36:e00373. [PMID: 27407175 PMCID: PMC5006313 DOI: 10.1042/bsr20160134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2016] [Revised: 07/11/2016] [Accepted: 07/12/2016] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Spinal cord injury (SCI) always occurs accidently and leads to motor dysfunction because of biochemical and pathological events. Estrogen has been shown to be neuroprotective against SCI through estrogen receptors (ERs), but the underlying mechanisms have not been fully elucidated. In the present study, we investigated the role of a newly found membrane ER, G protein-coupled estrogen receptor 1 (GPR30 or GPER1), and discussed the feasibility of a GPR30 agonist as an estrogen replacement. Forty adult female C57BL/6J mice (10-12 weeks old) were divided randomly into vehicle, G-1, E2, G-1 + G-15 and E2 + G-15 groups. All mice were subjected to SCI using a crushing injury approach. The specific GPR30 agonist, G-1, mimicked the effects of E2 treatment by preventing SCI-induced apoptotic cell death and enhancing motor functional recovery after injury. GPR30 activation regulated phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)/Akt and MAPK/extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) signalling pathways, increased GPR30 and anti-apoptosis proteins Bcl-2 and brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), but decreased the pro-apoptosis factor Bax and cleaved caspase-3. However, the neuroprotective effects of G-1 and E2 were blocked by the specific GPR30 antagonist, G-15. Thus, GPR30 rather than classic ERs is required to induce estrogenic neuroprotective effects. Given that estrogen replacement therapy may cause unexpected side effects, especially on the reproductive system, GPR30 agonists may represent a potential therapeutic approach for treating SCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiang Cheng
- Department of Orthopedics, Jinling Hospital, Clinical School of Nanjing, Second Military Medical University, Nanjing 210002, China
| | - Jia Meng
- Department of Orthopedics, Jinling Hospital, Clinical School of Nanjing, Second Military Medical University, Nanjing 210002, China
| | - Xin-Shang Wang
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an 710032, China
| | - Wen-Bo Kang
- Department of Orthopedics, Jinling Hospital, Clinical School of Nanjing, Second Military Medical University, Nanjing 210002, China
| | - Zhen Tian
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an 710032, China
| | - Kun Zhang
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an 710032, China
| | - Gang Liu
- Department of Orthopedics, Jinling Hospital, Clinical School of Nanjing, Second Military Medical University, Nanjing 210002, China
| | - Jian-Ning Zhao
- Department of Orthopedics, Jinling Hospital, Clinical School of Nanjing, Second Military Medical University, Nanjing 210002, China
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Brennan FH, Lee JD, Ruitenberg MJ, Woodruff TM. Therapeutic targeting of complement to modify disease course and improve outcomes in neurological conditions. Semin Immunol 2016; 28:292-308. [PMID: 27049459 DOI: 10.1016/j.smim.2016.03.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2016] [Revised: 03/17/2016] [Accepted: 03/18/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The recognition that complement proteins are abundantly present and can have pathological roles in neurological conditions offers broad scope for therapeutic intervention. Accordingly, an increasing number of experimental investigations have explored the potential of harnessing the unique activation pathways, proteases, receptors, complexes, and natural inhibitors of complement, to mitigate pathology in acute neurotrauma and chronic neurodegenerative diseases. Here, we review mechanisms of complement activation in the central nervous system (CNS), and explore the effects of complement inhibition in cerebral ischemic-reperfusion injury, traumatic brain injury, spinal cord injury, Alzheimer's disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Parkinson's disease and Huntington's disease. We consider the challenges and opportunities arising from these studies. As complement therapies approach clinical translation, we provide perspectives on how promising complement-targeted therapeutics could become part of novel and effective future treatment options to improve outcomes in the initiation and progression stages of these debilitating CNS disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Faith H Brennan
- School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane 4072, Australia
| | - John D Lee
- School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane 4072, Australia
| | - Marc J Ruitenberg
- School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane 4072, Australia; Queensland Brain Institute, The University of Queensland, Brisbane 4072, Australia; Trauma, Critical Care and Recovery, Brisbane Diamantina Health Partners, The University of Queensland, Brisbane 4072, Australia
| | - Trent M Woodruff
- School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane 4072, Australia.
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31
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Brennan FH, Ruitenberg MJ. Targeting acute inflammation to complement spinal cord repair. Neural Regen Res 2015; 10:1596-8. [PMID: 26692854 PMCID: PMC4660750 DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.165268] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Faith H Brennan
- School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Marc J Ruitenberg
- School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia ; Queensland Brain Institute, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia ; Trauma, Critical Care and Recovery, Brisbane Diamantina Health Partners, Brisbane, Australia
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The Complement Receptor C5aR Has a Dual, Time-Dependent Effect on the Outcome of Spinal Cord Injury. J Neurosci 2015; 35:12325-7. [PMID: 26354901 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.2380-15.2015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
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33
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Zuo S, Li W, Li Q, Zhao H, Tang J, Chen Q, Liu X, Zhang JH, Chen Y, Feng H. Protective effects of Ephedra sinica extract on blood-brain barrier integrity and neurological function correlate with complement C3 reduction after subarachnoid hemorrhage in rats. Neurosci Lett 2015; 609:216-22. [PMID: 26518242 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2015.10.056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2015] [Revised: 10/20/2015] [Accepted: 10/22/2015] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Early brain injury, which is associated with brain cell death, blood-brain barrier disruption, brain edema, and other pathophysiological events, is thought to be the main target in the prevention of poor outcomes after subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH). Emerging evidences indicates that complement system, especially complement C3 is detrimental to neurological outcomes of SAH patients. Recently, Ephedra sinica extract was extracted and purified, which exhibits ability to block the activity of the classical and alternative pathways of complement, and improve neurological outcomes after spinal cord injury and ischemic brain injury. However, it is still unclear whether Ephedra sinica extract could attenuate early brain injury after SAH. In the present study, a standard endovascular perforation model was used to produce the experimental SAH in Sprague-Dawley rats. Ephedra sinica extract (15mg/kg) was orally administrated daily and evaluated for effects on modified Garcia score, brain water content, Evans blue extravasation and fluorescence, cortex cell death by TUNEL staining, and the expressions of complement C3/C3b, activated C3, sonic hedgehog, osteopontin and matrix metalloproteinase-9 by western bolt and immunofluorescence staining. We founded that the Ephedra sinica extract alleviated the blood-brain barrier disruption and brain edema, eventually improved neurological functions after SAH in rats. These neuroprotective effects was associated with the inhibition of complement C3, possibly via upregulating sonic hedgehog and osteopontin signal, and reducing the expressions of matrix metalloproteinase-9. Taking together, these observations suggested complement C3 inhibition by the Ephedra sinica extract may be a protective factor against early brain injury after SAH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shilun Zuo
- Department of Neurosurgery, Southwest Hospital, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Wenyan Li
- Department of Neurosurgery, Southwest Hospital, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Qiang Li
- Department of Neurosurgery, Southwest Hospital, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Hengli Zhao
- Department of Neurosurgery, Southwest Hospital, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Jun Tang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Southwest Hospital, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Qianwei Chen
- Department of Neurosurgery, Southwest Hospital, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Xin Liu
- Department of Neurosurgery, Southwest Hospital, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - John H Zhang
- Department of Anesthesiology, Neurosurgery and Physiology, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, CA, United States
| | - Yujie Chen
- Department of Neurosurgery, Southwest Hospital, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, China.
| | - Hua Feng
- Department of Neurosurgery, Southwest Hospital, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, China.
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Expression of C5a and its receptor following spinal cord ischemia reperfusion injury in the rat. Spinal Cord 2015; 53:581-4. [PMID: 25917954 DOI: 10.1038/sc.2015.65] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2014] [Revised: 03/04/2015] [Accepted: 03/16/2015] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
STUDY DESIGN Experimental study. OBJECTIVE To investigate the expression of C5a and its receptor after spinal cord ischemia reperfusion injury (SIRI) in rat. SETTING Department of Neurosurgery, the Second Affiliated Hospital, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Shaanxi Province, Xi'an, China METHODS Sprague Dawley rats were subjected to 1 h of infrarenal aorta occlusion to induce spinal cord ischemia. Spinal cord was reperfused for 12, 24, 48 h or 3 days separately after ischemia, respectively. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay was used to detect C5a in rat serum. Immunofluorescent staining was performed to detect the expression and cellular localization of C5aR in spinal cord following SIRI. RESULTS Following SIRI, the motor behavior of the rats was significantly compromised. The serum concentration of C5a in the rat was elevated after SIRI and peaked at 24 h. C5aR was significantly upregulated in the lumbar spinal cord following SIRI and expressed on motor neurons and the microglia, but not astrocyte. There was no significant difference in the expression level of C5aR localized on motor neurons after SIRI. Remarkable upregulation of the C5aR may be associated with increased number of C5aR-positive microglia and elevated cellular expression level. CONCLUSION This study provides the first evidence of the expression of C5a and its receptors in SIRI and suggests their possible contribution to SIRI in a rat model.
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35
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Brennan FH, Gordon R, Lao HW, Biggins PJ, Taylor SM, Franklin RJM, Woodruff TM, Ruitenberg MJ. The Complement Receptor C5aR Controls Acute Inflammation and Astrogliosis following Spinal Cord Injury. J Neurosci 2015; 35:6517-31. [PMID: 25904802 PMCID: PMC6605214 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.5218-14.2015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2014] [Revised: 02/26/2015] [Accepted: 03/17/2015] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
This study investigated the role of the complement activation fragment C5a in secondary pathology following contusive spinal cord injury (SCI). C5ar(-/-) mice, which lack the signaling receptor for C5a, displayed signs of improved locomotor recovery and reduced inflammation during the first week of SCI compared with wild-type mice. Intriguingly, the early signs of improved recovery in C5ar(-/-) mice deteriorated from day 14 onward, with absence of C5aR ultimately leading to poorer functional outcomes, larger lesion volumes, reduced myelin content, and more widespread inflammation at 35 d SCI. Pharmacological blockade of C5aR with a selective antagonist (C5aR-A) during the first 7 d after SCI improved recovery compared with vehicle-treated mice, and this phenotype was sustained up to 35 d after injury. Consistent with observations made in C5ar(-/-) mice, these improvements were, however, lost if C5aR-A administration was continued into the more chronic phase of SCI. Signaling through the C5a-C5aR axis thus appears injurious in the acute period but serves a protective and/or reparative role in the post-acute phase of SCI. Further experiments in bone marrow chimeric mice suggested that the dual and opposing roles of C5aR on SCI outcomes primarily relate to its expression on CNS-resident cells and not infiltrating leukocytes. Additional in vivo and in vitro studies provided direct evidence that C5aR signaling is required during the postacute phase for astrocyte hyperplasia, hypertrophy, and glial scar formation. Collectively, these findings highlight the complexity of the inflammatory response to SCI and emphasize the importance of optimizing the timing of therapeutic interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Faith H Brennan
- School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Queensland, Brisbane, 4072, Australia
| | - Richard Gordon
- School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Queensland, Brisbane, 4072, Australia
| | - Hong W Lao
- School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Queensland, Brisbane, 4072, Australia
| | - Patrick J Biggins
- School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Queensland, Brisbane, 4072, Australia
| | - Stephen M Taylor
- School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Queensland, Brisbane, 4072, Australia
| | - Robin J M Franklin
- Wellcome Trust-Medical Research Council, Cambridge Stem Cell Institute & Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 0AH, United Kingdom
| | - Trent M Woodruff
- School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Queensland, Brisbane, 4072, Australia
| | - Marc J Ruitenberg
- School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Queensland, Brisbane, 4072, Australia, Queensland Brain Institute, University of Queensland, Brisbane, 4072, Australia, and Trauma, Critical Care and Recovery, Brisbane Diamantina Health Partners, Brisbane, 4072, Australia
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Benson MJ, Thomas NK, Talwar S, Hodson MP, Lynch JW, Woodruff TM, Borges K. A novel anticonvulsant mechanism via inhibition of complement receptor C5ar1 in murine epilepsy models. Neurobiol Dis 2015; 76:87-97. [PMID: 25681535 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2015.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2014] [Revised: 01/21/2015] [Accepted: 02/04/2015] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The role of complement system-mediated inflammation is of key interest in seizure and epilepsy pathophysiology, but its therapeutic potential has not yet been explored. We observed that the pro-inflammatory C5a receptor, C5ar1, is upregulated in two mouse models after status epilepticus; the pilocarpine model and the intrahippocampal kainate model. The C5ar1 antagonist, PMX53, was used to assess potential anticonvulsant actions of blocking this receptor pathway. PMX53 was found to be anticonvulsant in several acute models (6Hz and corneal kindling) and one chronic seizure model (intrahippocampal kainate model). The effects in the 6Hz model were not found in C5ar1-deficient mice, or with an inactive PMX53 analogue suggesting that the anticonvulsant effect of PMX53 is C5ar1-specific. In the pilocarpine model, inhibition or absence of C5ar1 during status epilepticus lessened seizure power and protected hippocampal neurons from degeneration as well as halved SE-associated mortality. C5ar1-deficiency during pilocarpine-induced status epilepticus also was accompanied by attenuation of TNFα upregulation by microglia, suggesting that C5ar1 activation results in TNFα release contributing to disease. Patch clamp studies showed that C5a-induced microglial K(+) outward currents were also inhibited with PMX53 providing a potential mechanism to explain acute anticonvulsant effects. In conclusion, our data indicate that C5ar1 activation plays a role in seizure initiation and severity, as well as neuronal degeneration following status epilepticus. The widespread anticonvulsant activity of PMX53 suggests that C5ar1 represents a novel target for improved anti-epileptic drug development which may be beneficial for pharmaco-resistant patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melissa J Benson
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Queensland, Skerman Building, St Lucia, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - Nicola K Thomas
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Queensland, Skerman Building, St Lucia, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - Sahil Talwar
- Queensland Brain Institute, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - Mark P Hodson
- Australian Institute for Bioengineering and Nanotechnology, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - Joseph W Lynch
- Queensland Brain Institute, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - Trent M Woodruff
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Queensland, Skerman Building, St Lucia, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - Karin Borges
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Queensland, Skerman Building, St Lucia, Queensland 4072, Australia.
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Yuan J, Zou M, Xiang X, Zhu H, Chu W, Liu W, Chen F, Lin J. Curcumin improves neural function after spinal cord injury by the joint inhibition of the intracellular and extracellular components of glial scar. J Surg Res 2015; 195:235-45. [PMID: 25661742 DOI: 10.1016/j.jss.2014.12.055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2014] [Revised: 12/10/2014] [Accepted: 12/31/2014] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Spinal cord injury (SCI) is characterized by a high rate of disability and imposes a heavy burden on society and patients. SCI can activate glial cells and lead to swelling, hyperplasty, and reactive gliosis, which can severely reduce the space for nerve growth. Glial cells can secrete a large amount of extracellular inhibitory components, thus altering the microenvironment of axon growth. Both these factors seriously impede nerve regeneration. In the present study, we investigate whether curcumin (cur), a phytochemical compound with potent anti-inflammatory effect, plays a role in the repair of SCI. MATERIALS AND METHODS We established a rat model of SCI and treated the animals with different concentrations of cur. Using behavioral assessment, immunohistochemistry, real-time polymerase chain reaction, Western blotting, and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, we detected the intracellular and extracellular components of glial scar and related cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interleukin (IL)-1β, nuclear factor (NF)-κb, transforming growth factor (TGF)-β1, TGF-β2, and sex determining region Y-box (SOX)-9. RESULTS We found that cur inhibited the expression of proinflammatory cytokines, such as TNF-α, IL-1β, and NF-κb; reduced the expression of the intracellular components glial fibrillary acidic protein through anti-inflammation; and suppressed the reactive gliosis. Also, cur inhibited the generation of TGF-β1, TGF-β2, and SOX-9; decreased the deposition of chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan by inhibiting the transforming growth factors and transcription factor; and improved the microenvironment for nerve growth. Through the joint inhibition of the intracellular and extracellular components of glial scar, cur significantly reduced glial scar volume and improved the Basso, Beattie, and Bresnahan locomotor rating and axon growth. CONCLUSIONS Our data support a role for curcumin in promoting neural function recovery after SCI by the joint inhibition of the intracellular and extracellular components of glial scar, providing an important strategy for treating SCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jichao Yuan
- Department of Neurosurgery, Institute of Neurosurgery, Key Laboratory of Neurotrauma Prevention and Treatment, Southwest Hospital, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Mingming Zou
- Affiliated Bayi Brain Hospital, General Hospital of Beijing Military Region, Beijing, China
| | - Xin Xiang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Institute of Neurosurgery, Key Laboratory of Neurotrauma Prevention and Treatment, Southwest Hospital, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Haitao Zhu
- Department of Neurosurgery, Institute of Neurosurgery, Key Laboratory of Neurotrauma Prevention and Treatment, Southwest Hospital, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Weihua Chu
- Department of Neurosurgery, Institute of Neurosurgery, Key Laboratory of Neurotrauma Prevention and Treatment, Southwest Hospital, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Wei Liu
- Department of Neurosurgery, Institute of Neurosurgery, Key Laboratory of Neurotrauma Prevention and Treatment, Southwest Hospital, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Fei Chen
- Department of Neurosurgery, Institute of Neurosurgery, Key Laboratory of Neurotrauma Prevention and Treatment, Southwest Hospital, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Jiangkai Lin
- Department of Neurosurgery, Institute of Neurosurgery, Key Laboratory of Neurotrauma Prevention and Treatment, Southwest Hospital, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, China.
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