1
|
Di Bello F, Falcone R, Genovesio A. Simultaneous oscillatory encoding of "hot" and "cold" information during social interactions in the monkey medial prefrontal cortex. iScience 2024; 27:109559. [PMID: 38646179 PMCID: PMC11033171 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2024.109559] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2023] [Revised: 11/27/2023] [Accepted: 03/22/2024] [Indexed: 04/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Social interactions in primates require social cognition abilities such as anticipating the partner's future choices as well as pure cognitive skills involving processing task-relevant information. The medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) has been implicated in these cognitive processes. Here, we investigated the neural oscillations underlying the complex social behaviors involving the interplay of social roles (Actor vs. Observer) and interaction types (whether working with a "Good" or "Bad" partner). We found opposite power modulations of the beta and gamma bands by social roles, indicating dedicated processing for task-related information. Concurrently, the interaction type was conveyed by lower frequencies, which are commonly associated with neural circuits linked to performance and reward monitoring. Thus, the mPFC exhibits parallel coding of both "cold" processes (purely cognitive) and "hot" processes (reward and social-related). This allocation of neural resources gives the mPFC a key neural node, flexibly integrating multiple sources of information during social interactions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Fabio Di Bello
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Rossella Falcone
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
- Leo M. Davidoff Department of Neurological Surgery, Albert Einstein College of Medicine Montefiore Medical Center Bronx, Bronx, NY, USA
| | - Aldo Genovesio
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Nasrini J, Hampton RR. Six adult male rhesus monkeys did not learn from the choices of a conspecific shown in videos. Anim Cogn 2023; 26:379-392. [PMID: 35982328 PMCID: PMC10406175 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-022-01669-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2022] [Revised: 07/08/2022] [Accepted: 08/04/2022] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
There is substantial evidence of group-specific behaviors in wild animals that are thought to be socially transmitted. Yet experimental studies with monkeys have reported conflicting evidence on the extent to which monkeys learn by observing their conspecifics. In this study, we tested the feasibility of using pre-recorded video demonstrations to investigate social learning from conspecifics in rhesus monkeys. With training, monkeys gradually learned to respond correctly following videos of a demonstrator, however, follow-up experiments revealed that this was not due to learning from the demonstrator monkey. In generalization tests with videos that were horizontally reversed, monkeys continued responding to the location they had associated with each video, rather than matching the new choice location shown in the mirrored video. When the task was changed to make location irrelevant, such that monkeys could choose correctly only by selecting the same image selected by the demonstrator in the video, observer monkeys did not exceed chance in 12,000 training trials. Because monkeys readily learn to follow nonsocial visual cues presented on a monitor to guide image choice, their inability to learn from a demonstrator here indicates substantial limitations in the capacity for social learning from videos. Furthermore, these findings encourage deeper consideration of what monkeys perceive when presented with video stimuli on computer screens.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jad Nasrini
- Department of Psychology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA.
- Emory National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA.
| | - Robert R Hampton
- Department of Psychology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
- Emory National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Moeller S, Unakafov AM, Fischer J, Gail A, Treue S, Kagan I. Human and macaque pairs employ different coordination strategies in a transparent decision game. eLife 2023; 12:81641. [PMID: 36633125 PMCID: PMC9937648 DOI: 10.7554/elife.81641] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2022] [Accepted: 12/28/2022] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Many real-world decisions in social contexts are made while observing a partner's actions. To study dynamic interactions during such decisions, we developed a setup where two agents seated face-to-face to engage in game-theoretical tasks on a shared transparent touchscreen display ('transparent games'). We compared human and macaque pairs in a transparent version of the coordination game 'Bach-or-Stravinsky', which entails a conflict about which of two individually-preferred opposing options to choose to achieve coordination. Most human pairs developed coordinated behavior and adopted dynamic turn-taking to equalize the payoffs. All macaque pairs converged on simpler, static coordination. Remarkably, two animals learned to coordinate dynamically after training with a human confederate. This pair selected the faster agent's preferred option, exhibiting turn-taking behavior that was captured by modeling the visibility of the partner's action before one's own movement. Such competitive turn-taking was unlike the prosocial turn-taking in humans, who equally often initiated switches to and from their preferred option. Thus, the dynamic coordination is not restricted to humans but can occur on the background of different social attitudes and cognitive capacities in rhesus monkeys. Overall, our results illustrate how action visibility promotes the emergence and maintenance of coordination when agents can observe and time their mutual actions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian Moeller
- Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory, German Primate Center – Leibniz Institute for Primate ResearchGöttingenGermany
- Leibniz ScienceCampus Primate CognitionGöttingenGermany
| | - Anton M Unakafov
- Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory, German Primate Center – Leibniz Institute for Primate ResearchGöttingenGermany
- Leibniz ScienceCampus Primate CognitionGöttingenGermany
- Georg-Elias-Müller-Institute of Psychology, University of GottingenGöttingenGermany
- Max Planck Institute for Dynamics and Self-OrganizationGöttingenGermany
- Campus Institute for Dynamics of Biological NetworksGottingenGermany
| | - Julia Fischer
- Leibniz ScienceCampus Primate CognitionGöttingenGermany
- Cognitive Ethology Laboratory, German Primate Center – Leibniz Institute for Primate ResearchGöttingenGermany
- Department of Primate Cognition, Johann-Friedrich-Blumenbach Institute for Zoology and Anthropology, University of GottingenGöttingenGermany
| | - Alexander Gail
- Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory, German Primate Center – Leibniz Institute for Primate ResearchGöttingenGermany
- Leibniz ScienceCampus Primate CognitionGöttingenGermany
- Georg-Elias-Müller-Institute of Psychology, University of GottingenGöttingenGermany
- Bernstein Center for Computational NeuroscienceGöttingenGermany
| | - Stefan Treue
- Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory, German Primate Center – Leibniz Institute for Primate ResearchGöttingenGermany
- Leibniz ScienceCampus Primate CognitionGöttingenGermany
- Georg-Elias-Müller-Institute of Psychology, University of GottingenGöttingenGermany
- Bernstein Center for Computational NeuroscienceGöttingenGermany
| | - Igor Kagan
- Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory, German Primate Center – Leibniz Institute for Primate ResearchGöttingenGermany
- Leibniz ScienceCampus Primate CognitionGöttingenGermany
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Ferrucci L, Nougaret S, Ceccarelli F, Sacchetti S, Fascianelli V, Benozzo D, Genovesio A. Social monitoring of actions in the macaque frontopolar cortex. Prog Neurobiol 2022; 218:102339. [PMID: 35963359 DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2022.102339] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2022] [Revised: 08/03/2022] [Accepted: 08/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
The frontopolar cortex (FPC) of primates appeared as a main innovation in the evolution of anthropoid primates and it has been placed at the top of the prefrontal hierarchy. The only study to date that investigated the activity of FPC neurons in monkeys performing a cognitive task suggested that these cells were involved in the monitoring of self-generated actions. We recorded the activity of neurons in the FPCs of two rhesus monkeys while they performed a social variant of a nonmatch-to-goal task that required monitoring the actions of a human or computer agent. We discovered that the role of FPC neurons extends beyond self-generated actions to include monitoring others' actions. Their monitoring activity was very specific. First, neurons in the FPC encoded the spatial position of the target but not its object features. Second, a dedicated representation of the human agent actions was tied to the time of target acquisition, while it was reduced or absent in the successive epochs of the trial. Finally, this other-specific neural substrate did not emerge during the interaction with a virtual agent such as the computer. These results provide a new perspective on the functions of a uniquely primate brain area, suggesting that FPC might play an important role in social behaviors.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lorenzo Ferrucci
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Sapienza University of Rome, Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, 00185 Rome, Italy
| | - Simon Nougaret
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Sapienza University of Rome, Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, 00185 Rome, Italy
| | - Francesco Ceccarelli
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Sapienza University of Rome, Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, 00185 Rome, Italy; PhD program in Behavioral Neuroscience, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Stefano Sacchetti
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Sapienza University of Rome, Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, 00185 Rome, Italy
| | - Valeria Fascianelli
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Sapienza University of Rome, Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, 00185 Rome, Italy
| | - Danilo Benozzo
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Sapienza University of Rome, Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, 00185 Rome, Italy
| | - Aldo Genovesio
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Sapienza University of Rome, Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, 00185 Rome, Italy.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Formaux A, O'Sullivan E, Fagot J, Claidière N. Understanding Imitation in Papio papio: The Role of Experience and the Presence of a Conspecific Demonstrator. Cogn Sci 2022; 46:e13117. [PMID: 35297093 DOI: 10.1111/cogs.13117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2021] [Revised: 02/02/2022] [Accepted: 02/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
What factors affect imitation performance? Varying theories of imitation stress the role of experience, but few studies have explicitly tested its role in imitative learning in non-human primates. We tested several predictions regarding the role of experience, conspecific presence, and action compatibility using a stimulus-response compatibility protocol. Nineteen baboons separated into two experimental groups learned to respond by targeting on a touch screen the same stimulus as their neighbor (compatible) or the opposite stimulus (incompatible). They first performed the task with a conspecific demonstrator (social phase) and then a computer demonstrator (ghost phase). After reaching a predetermined success threshold, they were then tested in an opposite compatibility condition (i.e., reversal learning conditions). Seven baboons performed at least two reversals during the social phase, and we found no significant difference between the compatible and incompatible conditions, although we noticed slightly faster response times (RTs) in the compatible condition that disappeared after the first reversal. During the ghost phase, monkeys showed difficulties in learning the incompatible condition, and the compatible condition RTs tended to be slower than during the social phase. Together, these results suggest that (a) there is no strong movement compatibility effect in our task and that (b) the presence of a demonstrator plays a role in eliciting correct responses but is not essential as has been previously shown in human studies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anthony Formaux
- Laboratoire de Psychologie Cognitive (LPC), Aix Marseille Univ, CNRS.,Laboratoire de Psychologie Cognitive (LPC), CNRS.,Station de Primatologie-Celphedia, CNRS
| | - Eoin O'Sullivan
- School of Psychology and Neuroscience, The University of St. Andrews
| | - Joël Fagot
- Laboratoire de Psychologie Cognitive (LPC), Aix Marseille Univ, CNRS.,Laboratoire de Psychologie Cognitive (LPC), CNRS.,Station de Primatologie-Celphedia, CNRS
| | - Nicolas Claidière
- Laboratoire de Psychologie Cognitive (LPC), Aix Marseille Univ, CNRS.,Laboratoire de Psychologie Cognitive (LPC), CNRS.,Station de Primatologie-Celphedia, CNRS
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
OUP accepted manuscript. Cereb Cortex 2022; 32:4512-4523. [DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhab499] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2021] [Revised: 12/05/2021] [Accepted: 12/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
|
7
|
Ferrucci L, Nougaret S, Falcone R, Cirillo R, Ceccarelli F, Genovesio A. Dedicated Representation of Others in the Macaque Frontal Cortex: From Action Monitoring and Prediction to Outcome Evaluation. Cereb Cortex 2021; 32:891-907. [PMID: 34428277 PMCID: PMC8841564 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhab253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2020] [Revised: 07/12/2021] [Accepted: 07/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Social neurophysiology has increasingly addressed how several aspects of self and other are distinctly represented in the brain. In social interactions, the self–other distinction is fundamental for discriminating one’s own actions, intentions, and outcomes from those that originate in the external world. In this paper, we review neurophysiological experiments using nonhuman primates that shed light on the importance of the self–other distinction, focusing mainly on the frontal cortex. We start by examining how the findings are impacted by the experimental paradigms that are used, such as the type of social partner or whether a passive or active interaction is required. Next, we describe the 2 sociocognitive systems: mirror and mentalizing. Finally, we discuss how the self–other distinction can occur in different domains to process different aspects of social information: the observation and prediction of others’ actions and the monitoring of others’ rewards.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lorenzo Ferrucci
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, SAPIENZA, University of Rome, Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, 00185 Rome, Italy
| | - Simon Nougaret
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, SAPIENZA, University of Rome, Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, 00185 Rome, Italy
| | - Rossella Falcone
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, SAPIENZA, University of Rome, Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, 00185 Rome, Italy
| | - Rossella Cirillo
- Institut des Sciences Cognitives Marc Jeannerod, Département de Neuroscience Cognitive, CNRS, UMR 5229, 69500 Bron Cedex, France
| | - Francesco Ceccarelli
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, SAPIENZA, University of Rome, Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, 00185 Rome, Italy.,PhD program in Behavioral Neuroscience, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Rome, Italy
| | - Aldo Genovesio
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, SAPIENZA, University of Rome, Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, 00185 Rome, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Castellano-Navarro A, Macanás-Martínez E, Xu Z, Guillén-Salazar F, MacIntosh AJJ, Amici F, Albiach-Serrano A. Japanese Macaques' (Macaca fuscata) sensitivity to human gaze and visual perspective in contexts of threat, cooperation, and competition. Sci Rep 2021; 11:5264. [PMID: 33664316 PMCID: PMC7933183 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-84250-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2020] [Accepted: 02/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Gaze sensitivity allows us to interpret the visual perspective of others, inferring their intentions and attentional states. In order to clarify the evolutionary history of this ability, we assessed the response of free-ranging Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata) to human gaze in three contexts: threat (Experiment 1), cooperation (Experiment 2), and competition (Experiment 3). Subjects interpreted the direct gaze of an approaching human as a sign of threat, showing a greater flight initiation distance and more threats towards the human in this condition than when the human gazed in another direction. Subjects also adapted their behavior to the attentional cues of a human who gave them food, by for example moving into his visual field. However, the macaques did not seem to take the visual perspective of a human competing with them over food, as they failed to first retrieve the food that was not visible to the human (i.e., located behind an opaque barrier). Our results support the idea that Japanese macaques can respond to a human’s gaze flexibly depending on the context. Moreover, they highlight the importance of studying animal behavior across different species and contexts to better understand the selective pressures that might have led to its evolution.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alba Castellano-Navarro
- Ethology and Animal Welfare Section, Universidad Cardenal Herrera-CEU, CEU Universities, Tirant lo Blanc 7, 46115, Alfara del Patriarca, Valencia, Spain.
| | - Emilio Macanás-Martínez
- Ethology and Animal Welfare Section, Universidad Cardenal Herrera-CEU, CEU Universities, Tirant lo Blanc 7, 46115, Alfara del Patriarca, Valencia, Spain
| | - Zhihong Xu
- Primate Research Institute, Kyoto University, Kanrin 41-2, Inuyama, Aichi, 484-8506, Japan
| | - Federico Guillén-Salazar
- Ethology and Animal Welfare Section, Universidad Cardenal Herrera-CEU, CEU Universities, Tirant lo Blanc 7, 46115, Alfara del Patriarca, Valencia, Spain
| | - Andrew J J MacIntosh
- Primate Research Institute, Kyoto University, Kanrin 41-2, Inuyama, Aichi, 484-8506, Japan
| | - Federica Amici
- Research Group Primate Behavioral Ecology, Department of Human Behavior, Ecology and Culture, Max-Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Deutscher Platz 6, 04103, Leipzig, Germany.,Behavioral Ecology Research Group, Institute of Biology, Faculty of Life Science, University of Leipzig, Talstraße 33, 04103, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Anna Albiach-Serrano
- Ethology and Animal Welfare Section, Universidad Cardenal Herrera-CEU, CEU Universities, Tirant lo Blanc 7, 46115, Alfara del Patriarca, Valencia, Spain
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Sacchetti S, Ceccarelli F, Ferrucci L, Benozzo D, Brunamonti E, Nougaret S, Genovesio A. Macaque monkeys learn and perform a non-match-to-goal task using an automated home cage training procedure. Sci Rep 2021; 11:2700. [PMID: 33514812 PMCID: PMC7846587 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-82021-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2020] [Accepted: 01/04/2021] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
In neurophysiology, nonhuman primates represent an important model for studying the brain. Typically, monkeys are moved from their home cage to an experimental room daily, where they sit in a primate chair and interact with electronic devices. Refining this procedure would make the researchers' work easier and improve the animals' welfare. To address this issue, we used home-cage training to train two macaque monkeys in a non-match-to-goal task, where each trial required a switch from the choice made in the previous trial to obtain a reward. The monkeys were tested in two versions of the task, one in which they acted as the agent in every trial and one in which some trials were completed by a "ghost agent". We evaluated their involvement in terms of their performance and their interaction with the apparatus. Both monkeys were able to maintain a constant involvement in the task with good, stable performance within sessions in both versions of the task. Our study confirms the feasibility of home-cage training and demonstrates that even with challenging tasks, monkeys can complete a large number of trials at a high performance level, which is a prerequisite for electrophysiological studies of monkey behavior.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Stefano Sacchetti
- grid.7841.aDepartment of Physiology and Pharmacology, SAPIENZA, University of Rome, Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, 00185 Rome, Italy ,grid.7841.aPhD Program in Behavioral Neuroscience, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Francesco Ceccarelli
- grid.7841.aDepartment of Physiology and Pharmacology, SAPIENZA, University of Rome, Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, 00185 Rome, Italy ,grid.7841.aPhD Program in Behavioral Neuroscience, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Lorenzo Ferrucci
- grid.7841.aDepartment of Physiology and Pharmacology, SAPIENZA, University of Rome, Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, 00185 Rome, Italy
| | - Danilo Benozzo
- grid.7841.aDepartment of Physiology and Pharmacology, SAPIENZA, University of Rome, Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, 00185 Rome, Italy
| | - Emiliano Brunamonti
- grid.7841.aDepartment of Physiology and Pharmacology, SAPIENZA, University of Rome, Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, 00185 Rome, Italy
| | - Simon Nougaret
- grid.7841.aDepartment of Physiology and Pharmacology, SAPIENZA, University of Rome, Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, 00185 Rome, Italy
| | - Aldo Genovesio
- grid.7841.aDepartment of Physiology and Pharmacology, SAPIENZA, University of Rome, Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, 00185 Rome, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Novak MA. Self-Injurious behavior in rhesus macaques: Issues and challenges. Am J Primatol 2020; 83:e23222. [PMID: 33368425 DOI: 10.1002/ajp.23222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2020] [Revised: 11/18/2020] [Accepted: 12/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Some monkeys housed in research facilities develop abnormal behavior ranging from stereotypic to the more serious condition of self-injurious behavior (SIB). We initially sought to understand how and why monkeys engaged in SIB and more importantly why only a small percentage of laboratory monkeys, with seemingly similar housing and background, developed this disorder. Of particular importance was the recognition that different pathways might lead to SIB and that strong individual differences would affect the manifestation of this disorder and the response to treatment. We developed a comprehensive plan to identify effective treatment and prevention strategies. We started with characterizing the disorder in terms of prevalence and types of environments in which it was found. We then conducted observations on a cohort of SIB and control monkeys to identify conditions associated with SIB (e.g., disordered sleep) as well as clinical disease states and congenital defects that could be precipitating factors. We examined the environmental events that triggered episodes of SIB in monkeys with the disorder and evaluated three models that might explain the reinforcement contingencies associated with SIB, including tension reduction, self-stimulation, and social communication. Possible treatments for SIB such as environmental enrichment, social housing, and pharmacotherapy were tested by our group and others. To date, no single treatment has been found to abolish SIB, and each of these treatments is impacted by individual differences. To develop possible prevention strategies, we examined colony management and health records to find risk factors for SIB. These risk factors generalized to other facilities, and considerable effort was expended by all behavioral managers at these facilities to reduce early life stress exposure, to minimize the length of individual cage housing by emphasizing pair housing, and to reduce the possible stressfulness of various veterinary/medical procedures by implementing positive reinforcement training.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Melinda A Novak
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts, USA.,New England Regional Primate Research Center, Harvard Medical School, Southborough, Massachusetts, USA
| |
Collapse
|