A quantitative regional expression profile of EAAT2 known and novel splice variants reopens the question of aberrant EAAT2 splicing in disease

Stargazing: Monitoring subcellular dynamics of brain astrocytes

Astrocytes are major non-neuronal cell types in the central nervous system that regulate a variety of processes in the brain including synaptic transmission, neurometabolism, and cerebrovasculature tone. Recent discoveries have revealed that astrocytes perform very specialized and heterogeneous roles in brain homeostasis and function. Exactly how astrocytes fulfill such diverse roles in the brain remains to be fully understood and is an active area of research. In this review, we focus on the complex subcellular anatomical features of protoplasmic gray matter astrocytes in the mature, healthy brain that likely empower these cells with the ability to detect and respond to changes in neuronal and synaptic activity. In particular, we discuss how intricate processes on astrocytes allow these cells to communicate with neurons and their synapses and strategically deliver specific cellular organelles such as mitochondria and ribosomes to active compartments within the neuropil. Understanding the properties of these structural elements will lead to a better understanding of how astrocytes function in the healthy and diseased brain.

Glutamate transporter splice variant expression in an enriched pyramidal cell population in schizophrenia

Dysregulation of the glutamate transporters EAAT1 and EAAT2 and their isoforms have been implicated in schizophrenia. EAAT1 and EAAT2 expression has been studied in different brain regions but the prevalence of astrocytic glutamate transporter expression masks the more subtle changes in excitatory amino acid transporters (EAATs) isoforms in neurons in the cortex. Using laser capture microdissection, pyramidal neurons were cut from the anterior cingulate cortex of postmortem schizophrenia (n = 20) and control (n = 20) subjects. The messenger RNA (mRNA) levels of EAAT1, EAAT2 and the splice variants EAAT1 exon9skipping, EAAT2 exon9skipping and EAAT2b were analyzed by real time PCR (RT-PCR) in an enriched population of neurons. Region-level expression of these transcripts was measured in postmortem schizophrenia (n = 25) and controls (n = 25). The relationship between selected EAAT polymorphisms and EAAT splice variant expression was also explored. Anterior cingulate cortex pyramidal cell expression of EAAT2b mRNA was increased (P < 0.001; 67%) in schizophrenia subjects compared with controls. There was no significant change in other EAAT variants. EAAT2 exon9skipping mRNA was increased (P < 0.05; 38%) at region level in the anterior cingulate cortex with no significant change in other EAAT variants at region level. EAAT2 single-nucleotide polymorphisms were significantly associated with changes in EAAT2 isoform expression. Haloperidol decanoate-treated animals, acting as controls for possible antipsychotic effects, did not have significantly altered neuronal EAAT2b mRNA levels. The novel finding that EAAT2b levels are increased in populations of anterior cingulate cortex pyramidal cells further demonstrates a role for neuronal glutamate transporter splice variant expression in schizophrenia.

Functional changes in glutamate transporters and astrocyte biophysical properties in a rodent model of focal cortical dysplasia

Cortical dysplasia is associated with intractable epilepsy and developmental delay in young children. Recent work with the rat freeze-induced focal cortical dysplasia (FCD) model has demonstrated that hyperexcitability in the dysplastic cortex is due in part to higher levels of extracellular glutamate. Astrocyte glutamate transporters play a pivotal role in cortical maintaining extracellular glutamate concentrations. Here we examined the function of astrocytic glutamate transporters in a FCD model in rats. Neocortical freeze lesions were made in postnatal day (PN) 1 rat pups and whole cell electrophysiological recordings and biochemical studies were performed at PN 21–28. Synaptically evoked glutamate transporter currents in astrocytes showed a near 10-fold reduction in amplitude compared to sham operated controls. Astrocyte glutamate transporter currents from lesioned animals were also significantly reduced when challenged exogenously applied glutamate. Reduced astrocytic glutamate transport clearance contributed to increased NMDA receptor-mediated current decay kinetics in lesioned animals. The electrophysiological profile of astrocytes in the lesion group was also markedly changed compared to sham operated animals. Control astrocytes demonstrate large-amplitude linear leak currents in response to voltage-steps whereas astrocytes in lesioned animals demonstrated significantly smaller voltage-activated inward and outward currents. Significant decreases in astrocyte resting membrane potential and increases in input resistance were observed in lesioned animals. However, Western blotting, immunohistochemistry and quantitative PCR demonstrated no differences in the expression of the astrocytic glutamate transporter GLT-1 in lesioned animals relative to controls. These data suggest that, in the absence of changes in protein or mRNA expression levels, functional changes in astrocytic glutamate transporters contribute to neuronal hyperexcitability in the FCD model.

Unique nuclear vacuoles in the motor neurons of conditional ADAR2-knockout mice

A reduction in adenosine deaminase acting on RNA 2 (ADAR2) activity causes the death of spinal motor neurons specifically via the GluA2 Q/R site-RNA editing failure in sporadic amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). We studied, over time, the spinal cords of ADAR2-knockout mice, which are the mechanistic model mice for sporadic ALS, using homozygous ADAR2(flox/flox)/VAChT-Cre.Fast (AR2), homozygous ADAR2(flox/flox)/VAChT-Cre.Slow (AR2Slow), and heterozygous ADAR2(flox/+)/VAChT-Cre.Fast (AR2H) mice. The conditional ADAR2-knockout mice were divided into 3 groups by stage: presymptomatic (AR2H mice), early symptomatic (AR2 mice, AR2H mice) and late symptomatic (AR2Slow mice). Light-microscopically, some motor neurons in AR2 and AR2H mice (presymptomatic) showed simple neuronal atrophy and astrogliosis, and AR2H (early symptomatic) and AR2Slow mice often showed vacuoles predominantly in motor neurons. The number of vacuole-bearing anterior horn neurons decreased with the loss of anterior horn neurons in AR2H mice after 40 weeks of age. Electron-microscopically, in AR2 mice, while the cytoplasm of normal-looking motor neurons was almost always normal-appearing, the interior of dendrites was frequently loose and disorganized. In AR2H and AR2Slow mice, large vacuoles without a limiting membrane were observed in the anterior horns, preferentially in the nuclei of motor neurons, astrocytes and oligodendrocytes. Nuclear vacuoles were not observed in AR2res (ADAR2(flox/flox)/VAChT-Cre.Fast/GluR-B(R/R)) mice, in which motor neurons express edited GluA2 in the absence of ADAR2. These findings suggest that ADAR2-reduction is associated with progressive deterioration of nuclear architecture, resulting in vacuolated nuclei due to a Ca(2+)-permeable AMPA receptor-mediated mechanism.

Structure-activity-relationship study of N-acyl-N-phenylpiperazines as potential inhibitors of the Excitatory Amino Acid Transporters (EAATs): improving the potency of a micromolar screening Hit is not truism

The excitatory amino acid transporters (EAATs) are transmembrane proteins responsible for the uptake of (S)-glutamate from the synaptic cleft. To date, five subtypes EAAT1-5 have been identified for which selective inhibitors have been discovered for EAAT1 and EAAT2. By screening of a commercially available compound library consisting of 4,000 compounds, N-acyl-N-phenylpiperazine analog (±)- exo -1 was identified to be a non-selective inhibitor at EAAT1-3 displaying IC50 values in the mid-micromolar range (10 μ M, 40 μ M and 30 μ M at EAAT1, 2 and 3, respectively). Subsequently, we designed and synthesized a series of analogs to explore the structure-activity-relationship of this scaffold in the search for analogs characterized by increased inhibitory potency and/or EAAT subtype selectivity. Despite extensive efforts, all analogs of (±)- exo -1 proved to be either inactive or to have least 3-fold lower inhibitory potency than the lead, and furthermore none of the active analogs displayed selectivity for a particular subtype amongst the EAAT1-3. On the basis of our findings, we speculate that (±)- exo -1 binds to a recess (deepening) on the EAAT proteins than a well-defined pocket.

Function of alternative splicing

Almost all polymerase II transcripts undergo alternative pre-mRNA splicing. Here, we review the functions of alternative splicing events that have been experimentally determined. The overall function of alternative splicing is to increase the diversity of mRNAs expressed from the genome. Alternative splicing changes proteins encoded by mRNAs, which has profound functional effects. Experimental analysis of these protein isoforms showed that alternative splicing regulates binding between proteins, between proteins and nucleic acids as well as between proteins and membranes. Alternative splicing regulates the localization of proteins, their enzymatic properties and their interaction with ligands. In most cases, changes caused by individual splicing isoforms are small. However, cells typically coordinate numerous changes in 'splicing programs', which can have strong effects on cell proliferation, cell survival and properties of the nervous system. Due to its widespread usage and molecular versatility, alternative splicing emerges as a central element in gene regulation that interferes with almost every biological function analyzed.

Links between electrophysiological and molecular pathology of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis

Multiple deficits have been described in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), from the first changes in normal functioning of the motoneurons and glia to the eventual loss of spinal and cortical motoneurons. In this review, current results, including changes in size, and electrical properties of motoneurons, glutamate excitotoxicity, calcium buffering, deficits in mitochondrial and cellular transport, impediments to proteostasis which lead to stress of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), and glial contributions to motoneuronal vulnerability are recapitulated. Results are mainly drawn from the mutant SOD1 mouse model of ALS, and emphasis is placed on early changes that precede the onset of symptoms and the interplay between molecular and electrical processes.

Differential regulation of C-terminal splice variants of the glutamate transporter GLT-1 by tumor necrosis factor-alpha in primary cultures of astrocytes

The high-affinity glutamate transporter GLT-1 plays a key role in the control of the glutamate homeostasis in the central nervous system and protects neurons against excitotoxicity. Splice variants of the original transcript have been identified and their involvement in neurodegenerative disorders has been proposed. However, the functions and the regulations of these isoforms remain unclear. In this study, we focused our interest on the expression of two C-terminal splice variants of GLT-1 (GLT-1a and b) in primary astrocyte cultures exposed to distinct chemical environments. While GLT-1a and GLT-1b mRNAs were both increased in response to treatment with N(6),2'-O-dibutyryladenosine 3',5'-cyclic monophosphate (dBcAMP), the culture supplement G5 or tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), the regulation of GLT-1b appeared quicker and was more pronounced. Besides, using validated antibodies, we evidenced a differential regulation of the two proteins in cells exposed to TNF-α. Thus, while dBcAMP and the G5 supplement stimulated the expression of both isoforms at 3 and 7 days, a transient upregulation of GLT-1a was induced by TNF-α, which contrasts with the sustained induction of the GLT-1b isoform. These results shed light on the complex influence of the pro-inflammatory cytokine TNF-α on GLT-1a mRNA and protein expression and on the necessity to distinctly consider the GLT-1 isoforms with appropriate tools in studies addressing the regulation of glutamate transporters.

Hepatitis B virus and Homo sapiens proteome-wide analysis: A profusion of viral peptide overlaps in neuron-specific human proteins

The primary amino acid sequence of the hepatitis B virus (HBV) proteome was searched for identity spots in the human proteome by using the Protein Information Resource database. We find that the HBV polyprotein shares sixty-five heptapeptides, one octapeptide, and one nonapeptide with the human proteins. The viral matches are disseminated among fundamental human proteins such as adhesion molecules, leukocyte differentiation antigens, enzymes, proteins associated with spermatogenesis, and transcription factors. As a datum of special interest, a number of peptide motifs are shared between the virus- and brain-specific antigens involved in neuronal protection. This study may help to evaluate the potential cross reactions and side effects of HBV antigen-based vaccines.

Glutamate transporter variants reduce glutamate uptake in Alzheimer's disease

A characteristic of Alzheimer's disease (AD) is that neuron populations in the temporal, frontal, and parietal cortices are selectively vulnerable. Several neurotransmitters have been proposed to play roles in neural destruction as AD progresses, including glutamate. Failure to clear the synaptic cleft of glutamate can overstimulate postsynaptic glutamate receptors, promoting neuronal death. Excitatory amino acid transporter 2 (EAAT2), which is concentrated in perisynaptic astrocytes, performs 90% of glutamate uptake in mammalian central nervous system. Alternative splicing of EAAT2 mRNA could regulate glutamate transport in normal and disease states. We report disease- and pathology-specific variations in EAAT2 splice variant expression in AD brain obtained at autopsy. While wild type EAAT2 showed a global reduction in expression, brain regions susceptible to neuronal loss demonstrated greater expression of transcripts that reduced glutamate transport in an in vitro assay. Functional splice variant EAAT2b showed no significant variation with disease state. These results have implications for the treatment of AD as modulators of EAAT2 splicing and/or glutamate uptake would augment current therapies aimed at blocking glutamate receptors.

Differential expression and alternative splicing of genes in lumbar spinal cord of an amyotrophic lateral sclerosis mouse model

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is one of the most common adult-onset neurodegenerative diseases, with progressive paralysis and muscle atrophy. The exact pathogenic mechanism remains unknown, but recent evidence suggests that differential gene expression and gene splicing may play a significant role. We used Affymetrix GeneChip Mouse Exon 1.0 ST Array to investigate the expression profiling of lumbar spinal cord samples from SOD1-G93A transgenic mice, the widely used animal model of ALS. The de-regulated genes analyzed either from the expression level or from the alternative splicing level both showed overlapping GO categories and pathway mapping. Our findings indicate that cell adhesion, immune-inflammation response and lipid metabolism all play important roles in the onset of ALS. Detailed analysis by RT-PCR of key genes confirmed the experimental results of microarrays. These results suggest a multi-factor mechanism in ALS development.

Presynaptic regulation of astroglial excitatory neurotransmitter transporter GLT1

The neuron-astrocyte synaptic complex is a fundamental operational unit of the nervous system. Astroglia regulate synaptic glutamate, via neurotransmitter transport by GLT1/EAAT2. Astroglial mechanisms underlying this essential neuron-glial communication are not known. We now show that presynaptic terminals regulate astroglial synaptic functions, GLT1/EAAT2, via kappa B-motif binding phosphoprotein (KBBP), the mouse homolog of human heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein K (hnRNP K), which binds the GLT1/EAAT2 promoter. Neuron-stimulated KBBP is required for GLT1/EAAT2 transcriptional activation and is responsible for astroglial alterations in neural injury. Denervation of neuron-astrocyte signaling by corticospinal tract transection, ricin-induced motor neuron death, or neurodegeneration in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis all result in reduced astroglial KBBP expression and transcriptional dysfunction of astroglial transporter expression. Presynaptic elements dynamically coordinate normal astroglial function and also provide a fundamental signaling mechanism by which altered neuronal function and injury leads to dysregulated astroglia in CNS disease.

EAAT2 regulation and splicing: relevance to psychiatric and neurological disorders

The excitatory amino acid transporter 2 (EAAT2) is responsible for the majority of glutamate uptake in the brain and its dysregulation has been associated with multiple psychiatric and neurological disorders. However, investigation of this molecule has been complicated by its complex pattern of alternative splicing, including three coding isoforms and multiple 5'- and 3'-UTRs that may have a regulatory function. It is likely that these sequences permit modulation of EAAT2 expression with spatial, temporal and or activity-dependent specificity; however, few studies have attempted to delineate the function of these sequences. Additionally, there are problems with the use of antibodies to study protein localization, possibly due to posttranslational modification of critical amino acid residues. This review describes what is currently known about the regulation of EAAT2 mRNA and protein isoforms and concludes with a summary of studies showing dysregulation of EAAT2 in psychiatric and neurological disorders. EAAT2 has been either primarily or secondarily implicated in a multitude of neuropsychiatric diseases in addition to the normal physiology of learning and memory. Thus, this molecule represents an intriguing therapeutic target once we improve our understanding of how it is regulated under normal conditions.

Chemical hypoxia facilitates alternative splicing of EAAT2 in presymptomatic APP23 transgenic mice

Hypoxia is one of the major common components of vascular risk factors for pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease. This study investigated the possible relationship between hypoxia and alternative splicing of the excitatory amino acid transporter 2 (EAAT2) in a transgenic model for Alzheimer's disease. We used an APP23 mouse model prior to amyloid deposition and subjected it to chemical hypoxia treatment as induced by 3-nitropropionic acid. One hour after administration of 3-nitropropionic acid changes in the expression of the 5'-splice forms mEAAT2/5UT3, mEAAT2/5UT4, and mEAAT2/5UT5 were found in the frontal cortex, hippocampus and cerebellum of the APP23 model. In untreated APP23 animals the expression of EAAT2 splice variants was unchanged. Our results demonstrate that hypoxia facilitates alternative splicing of EAAT2 in the APP23 model. This may be a molecular mechanism linking vascular factors to early pathophysiology of Alzheimer's disease.