Protective effects of indomethacin-loaded nanocapsules against oxygen-glucose deprivation in organotypic hippocampal slice cultures: Involvement of neuroinflammation

Nanotechnology-based Nose-to-brain Delivery in Epilepsy: A NovelApproach to Diagnosis and Treatment

Epilepsy is a serious neurological disease, and scientists have a significant challenge in developing a noninvasive treatment for the treatment of epilepsy. The goal is to provide novel ideas for improving existing and future anti-epileptic medications. The injection of nano treatment via the nose to the brain is being considered as a possible seizure control method. Various nasal medicine nanoformulations have the potential to cure epilepsy. Investigations with a variety of nose-to-brain dosing methods for epilepsy treatment have yielded promising results. After examining global literature on nanotechnology and studies, the authors propose nasal administration with nanoformulations as a means to successfully treat epilepsy. The goal of this review is to look at the innovative application of nanomedicine for epilepsy treatment via nose-to-brain transfer, with a focus on the use of nanoparticles for load medicines. When nanotechnology is combined with the nose to brain approach, treatment efficacy can be improved through site specific delivery. Furthermore, this technique of administration decreases adverse effects and patient noncompliance encountered with more traditional procedures.

The Anti-Arthritic Activity of Diclofenac Lipid-Core Nanocapsules: Stereological Analysis Showing More Protection of Deep Joint Components

Diclofenac is the most prescribed nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug worldwide and is used to relieve pain and inflammation in inflammatory arthritis. Diclofenac is associated with serious adverse effects, even in regular-dose regimens. Drug delivery systems can overcome this issue by reducing adverse effects and optimizing their efficacy. This study evaluated the activity of lipid-core nanocapsules loaded with diclofenac (DIC-LNCs) in an experimental model of adjuvant-induced arthritis. The diclofenac nanoformulation was obtained via self-assembly. A stereological analysis approach was applied for the morphological quantification of the volume, density, and cellular profile count of the metatarsophalangeal joints of rats. Proinflammatory cytokines and biochemical profiles were also obtained. Our results showed that the diclofenac nanocapsule DIC-LNCs were able to reduce arthritis compared with the control group and the DIC group. DIC-LNCs efficiently reduced proinflammatory cytokines, C-reactive protein, and xanthine oxidase levels. Additionally, DIC-LNCs reduced the loss of synoviocytes and chondrocytes compared with the DIC (p < 0.05) and control groups (p < 0.05). These data suggest that DIC-LNCs have anti-arthritic activity and preserve joint components, making them promising for clinical use.

Lipid-Based Nanocarriers for Neurological Disorders: A Review of the State-of-the-Art and Therapeutic Success to Date

Neurodegenerative disorders including Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, and dementia are chronic and advanced diseases that are associated with loss of neurons and other related pathologies. Furthermore, these disorders involve structural and functional defections of the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Consequently, advances in medicines and therapeutics have led to a better appreciation of various pathways associated with the development of neurodegenerative disorders, thus focusing on drug discovery and research for targeted drug therapy to the central nervous system (CNS). Although the BBB functions as a shield to prevent toxins in the blood from reaching the brain, drug delivery to the CNS is hindered by its presence. Owing to this, various formulation approaches, including the use of lipid-based nanocarriers, have been proposed to address shortcomings related to BBB permeation in CNS-targeted therapy, thus showing the potential of these carriers for translation into clinical use. Nevertheless, to date, none of these nanocarriers has been granted market authorization following the successful completion of all stages of clinical trials. While the aforementioned benefits of using lipid-based carriers underscores the need to fast-track their translational development into clinical practice, technological advances need to be initiated to achieve appropriate capacity for scale-up and the production of affordable dosage forms.

The Evaluation of Meloxicam Nanocrystals by Oral Administration with Different Particle Sizes

Meloxicam (MLX) is a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug used to treat rheumatoid arthritis and osteoarthritis. However, its poor water solubility limits the dissolution process and influences absorption. In order to solve this problem and improve its bioavailability, we prepared it in nanocrystals with three different particle sizes to improve solubility and compare the differences between various particle sizes. The nanocrystal particle sizes were studied through dynamic light scattering (DLS) and laser scattering (LS). Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) was used to characterize the morphology of nanocrystals. The sizes of meloxicam-nanocrystals-A (MLX-NCs-A), meloxicam-nanocrystals-B (MLX-NCs-B), and meloxicam-nanocrystals-C (MLX-NCs-C) were 3.262 ± 0.016 μm, 460.2 ± 9.5 nm, and 204.9 ± 2.8 nm, respectively. Molecular simulation was used to explore the distribution and interaction energy of MLX molecules and stabilizer molecules in water. The results of differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and powder X-ray diffraction (PXRD) proved that the crystalline state did not change in the preparation process. Transport studies of the Caco-2 cell model indicated that the cumulative degree of transport would increase as the particle size decreased. Additionally, plasma concentration-time curves showed that the AUC0-∞ of MLX-NCs-C were 3.58- and 2.92-fold greater than those of MLX-NCs-A and MLX-NCs-B, respectively. These results indicate that preparing MLX in nanocrystals can effectively improve the bioavailability, and the particle size of nanocrystals is an important factor in transmission and absorption.

Intranasal Delivery of Nanoformulations: A Potential Way of Treatment for Neurological Disorders

Although the global prevalence of neurological disorders such as Parkinson’s disease, Alzheimer’s disease, glioblastoma, epilepsy, and multiple sclerosis is steadily increasing, effective delivery of drug molecules in therapeutic quantities to the central nervous system (CNS) is still lacking. The blood brain barrier (BBB) is the major obstacle for the entry of drugs into the brain, as it comprises a tight layer of endothelial cells surrounded by astrocyte foot processes that limit drugs’ entry. In recent times, intranasal drug delivery has emerged as a reliable method to bypass the BBB and treat neurological diseases. The intranasal route for drug delivery to the brain with both solution and particulate formulations has been demonstrated repeatedly in preclinical models, including in human trials. The key features determining the efficacy of drug delivery via the intranasal route include delivery to the olfactory area of the nares, a longer retention time at the nasal mucosal surface, enhanced penetration of the drugs through the nasal epithelia, and reduced drug metabolism in the nasal cavity. This review describes important neurological disorders, challenges in drug delivery to the disordered CNS, and new nasal delivery techniques designed to overcome these challenges and facilitate more efficient and targeted drug delivery. The potential for treatment possibilities with intranasal transfer of drugs will increase with the development of more effective formulations and delivery devices.

PEGylated meloxicam-loaded nanocapsules reverse in vitro damage on caspase activity and do not induce toxicity in cultured human lymphocytes and mice

Meloxicam is an anti-inflammatory drug that has a potential protective effect in many common diseases. However, this molecule is quickly eliminated from the body due to it short half-life. One way to overcome this problem is to incorporate meloxicam into lipid-core nanocapsules which may increase it anti-inflammatory effects. In view of this, the objective of this work was to evaluate the potential toxicity and safety of these novel nanomaterials both in vitro and in vivo. Here, we evaluated the effects of uncoated meloxicam-loaded nanocapsules (M-NC), uncoated and not loaded with meloxicam or blank (B-NC), PEGylated meloxicam-loaded lipid-core nanocapsules (M-NCPEG), blank PEGylated lipid-core nanocapsules (B-NCPEG) and free meloxicam (M-F) in vitro through the analysis of cell viability, caspase activity assays and gene expression of perforin and granzyme B. Meanwhile, the in vivo safety was assessed using C57BL/6 mice that received nanocapsules for seven days. Thus, no change in cell viability was observed after treatments. Furthermore, M-NC, M-NCPEG and M-F groups reversed the damage caused by H₂O₂ on caspase-1, 3 and 8 activities. Overall, in vivo results showed a safe profile of these nanocapsules including hematological, biochemical, histological and genotoxicity analysis. In conclusion, we observed that meloxicam nanocapsules present a safe profile to use in future studies with this experimental protocol and partially reverse in vitro damage caused by H₂O₂.

Application of nanodiagnostics and nanotherapy to CNS diseases

Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease and stroke are the most common CNS diseases, all characterized by progressive cellular dysfunction and death in specific areas of the nervous system. Therapeutic development for these diseases has lagged behind other disease areas due to difficulties in early diagnosis, long disease courses and drug delivery challenges, not least due to the blood-brain barrier. Over recent decades, nanotechnology has been explored as a potential tool for the diagnosis, treatment and monitoring of CNS diseases. In this review, we describe the application of nanotechnology to common CNS diseases, highlighting disease pathogenesis and the underlying mechanisms and promising functional outcomes that make nanomaterials ideal candidates for early diagnosis and therapy. Moreover, we discuss the limitations of nanotechnology, and possible solutions.

Triphenyl phosphonium coated nano-quercetin for oral delivery: Neuroprotective effects in attenuating age related global moderate cerebral ischemia reperfusion injury in rats

Cerebral ischemia-reperfusion is a classic example of reactive oxygen species (ROS) mediated acute damage to brain. Post-ischemic reperfusion induced oxygen free radicals production causes damage to brain cell mitochondria. Antioxidants like quercetin (Qc) have potentials to manage oxidative stress related pathophysiology. However low oral bioavailability and poor cell membrane permeability restrict its therapeutic efficacy. To overcome these hurdles mitochondria specific delivery of Qc nanocapsules was designed to efficiently counteract cerebral ischemia-reperfusion induced cell death and neurodegeneration in young and aged rats. The orally deliverable quercetin loaded polymeric nanocapsules (N1QC) were made mitochondria specific by using triphenylphosphonium cation as one of the matrix components. N1QC demonstrated higher brain uptake and remarkable mitochondrial localization post cerebral ischemia-reperfusion. This unique controlled mitochondrial delivery of quercetin ameliorated histopathological severity by preserving mitochondrial structural and functional integrity through sequestering ROS thus modulating mitochondrial ROS mediated apoptotic cell death in young and aged rats.

Organotypic Hippocampal Slices as Models for Stroke and Traumatic Brain Injury

Organotypic hippocampal slice cultures (OHSCs) have been used as a powerful ex vivo model for decades. They have been used successfully in studies of neuronal death, microglial activation, mossy fiber regeneration, neurogenesis, and drug screening. As a pre-animal experimental phase for physiologic and pathologic brain research, OHSCs offer outcomes that are relatively closer to those of whole-animal studies than outcomes obtained from cell culture in vitro. At the same time, mechanisms can be studied more precisely in OHSCs than they can be in vivo. Here, we summarize stroke and traumatic brain injury research that has been carried out in OHSCs and review classic experimental applications of OHSCs and its limitations.

Clozapine linked to nanocapsules minimizes tissue and oxidative damage to biomolecules lipids, proteins and DNA in brain of rats Wistar

Clozapine, atypical antipsychotic, can change oxidative stress parameters. It is known that reactive species, in excess, can have a crucial role in the etiology of diseases, as well as, can potentiating adverse effects induce by drugs. The nanocapsules have attracted attention as carriers of several drugs, with consequent reduction of adverse effects. This study aimed to evaluate histopathology and oxidative damage of biomolecules lipids, proteins and DNA in the brain of Wistar rats after treatment with nanocapsules containing clozapine. The study consisted of eight groups of male Wistar rats (n = 6): saline (SAL), free clozapine (CZP) (25 mg/Kg i.p.), blank uncoated nanocapsules (BNC), clozapine-loaded uncoated nanocapsules (CNC) (25 mg/Kg i.p.), blank chitosan-coated nanocapsules (BCSN), clozapine-loaded chitosan-coated nanocapsules (CCSN) (25 mg/Kg i.p.), blank polyethyleneglycol-coated nanocapsules (BPEGN), clozapine-loaded polyethyleneglycol-coated nanocapsules (CPEGN) (25 mg/Kg i.p.). The animals received the formulation once a day for seven consecutive days and euthanized in the eighth day. After euthanasia, the brain was collected and homogenate was processed for further analysis. The histopathology showed less brain tissue damage in nanocapsules-treated groups. The lipid peroxidation and carbonylation of proteins showed a significant increase (p < 0.05) induced by CZP. CNC and CPEGN groups obtained a reduction membrane of lipids damage and nanocapsules-treated groups showed significant improvement protein damage. CZP was able to induce genetic oxidative damage, while the nanocapsules causing less damage to DNA. The findings show that different coatings can act protecting target tissues decreasing oxidative damage, suggesting that the drug when linked to different nanocapsules is able to mitigate the harmful effects of clozapine.

Neuroprotective effects of apelin-13 on experimental ischemic stroke through suppression of inflammation

Acute inflammation plays an important role in the pathogenic progression of post-ischemic neuronal damage. Apelin-13 has been investigated as a neuropeptide for various neurological disorders. The present study was performed to evaluate the effects of apelin-13 on the inflammation of cerebral ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury. Transient focal I/R model in male Wistar rats were induced by 2h middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) followed by 24h reperfusion. Rats then received treatment with apelin-13 or vehicle after ischemia at the onset of reperfusion. The neurological deficit was evaluated and the infarct volume was measured by TTC staining. The activity of myeloperoxidase (MPO) was measured. The expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines including tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), and intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) were measured using real-time PCR. And the expression of apelin receptor (APJ), ionized calcium-binding adapter molecule-1 (Iba1), glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) and high mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) were measured by immunohistochemistry and western blot. Our results demonstrated that treatment with apelin-13 in I/R rats markedly reduced neurological deficits and the infarct volume. The increase of MPO activity induced by I/R was inhibited by apelin-13 treatment. The real-time PCR showed that apelin-13 decreased the expression of inflammatory cytokines such as IL-1β, TNF-α and ICAM-1 in I/R rats. The expression of APJ in I/R rats was increased. And the expression of Iba1, GFAP and HMGB1 in I/R rats was decreased by apelin-13 treatment indicating the inhibition of microglia, astrocytes and other inflammatory cells. In conclusion, apelin-13 is neuroprotective for neurons against I/R through inhibiting the neuroinflammation.

Laronidase-functionalized multiple-wall lipid-core nanocapsules: promising formulation for a more effective treatment of mucopolysaccharidosis type I

PURPOSE

Mucopolysaccharidosis I is a genetic disorder caused by alpha-L-iduronidase deficiency. Its primary treatment is enzyme replacement therapy (ERT), which has limitations such as a high cost and a need for repeated infusions over the patient's lifetime. Considering that nanotechnological approaches may enhance enzyme delivery to organs and can reduce the dosage thereby enhancing ERT efficiency and/or reducing its cost, we synthesized laronidase surface-functionalized lipid-core nanocapsules (L-MLNC).

METHODS

L-MLNCs were synthesized by using a metal complex. Size distributions were evaluated by laser diffraction and dynamic light scattering. The kinetic properties, cytotoxicity, cell uptake mechanisms, clearance profile and biodistribution were evaluated.

RESULTS

Size distributions showed a D[4,3] of 134 nm and a z-average diameter of 71 nm. L-MLNC enhanced the Vmax and Kcat in comparison with laronidase. L-MLNC is not cytotoxic, and nanocapsule uptake by active transport is not only mediated by mannose-6-phosphate receptors. The clearance profile is better for L-MLNC than for laronidase. A biodistribution analysis showed enhanced enzyme activity in different organs within 4 h and 24 h for L-MLNC.

CONCLUSIONS

The use of lipid-core nanocapsules as building blocks to synthesize surface-functionalized nanocapsules represents a new platform for producing decorated soft nanoparticles that are able to modify drug biodistribution.

Methotrexate diethyl ester-loaded lipid-core nanocapsules in aqueous solution increased antineoplastic effects in resistant breast cancer cell line

Breast cancer is the most frequent cancer affecting women. Methotrexate (MTX) is an antimetabolic drug that remains important in the treatment of breast cancer. Its efficacy is compromised by resistance in cancer cells that occurs through a variety of mechanisms. This study evaluated apoptotic cell death and cell cycle arrest induced by an MTX derivative (MTX diethyl ester [MTX(OEt)₂]) and MTX(OEt)₂-loaded lipid-core nanocapsules in two MTX-resistant breast adenocarcinoma cell lines, MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231. The formulations prepared presented adequate granulometric profile. The treatment responses were evaluated through flow cytometry. Relying on the mechanism of resistance, we observed different responses between cell lines. For MCF-7 cells, MTX(OEt)₂ solution and MTX(OEt)₂-loaded lipid-core nanocapsules presented significantly higher apoptotic rates than untreated cells and cells incubated with unloaded lipid-core nanocapsules. For MDA-MB-231 cells, MTX(OEt)₂-loaded lipid-core nanocapsules were significantly more efficient in inducing apoptosis than the solution of the free drug. S-phase cell cycle arrest was induced only by MTX(OEt)₂ solution. The drug nanoencapsulation improved apoptosis induction for the cell line that presents MTX resistance by lack of transport receptors.

The effect of cationic albumin-conjugated PEGylated tanshinone IIA nanoparticles on neuronal signal pathways and neuroprotection in cerebral ischemia

Targeted treatment of ischemic stroke remains problem due to the complex pathogenesis of this disease and the difficulty in drug delivery across the blood-brain barrier (BBB). In the present study, the delivery efficiency of cationic bovine serum albumin-conjugated tanshinone IIA PEGylated nanoparticles (CBSA-PEG-TIIA-NPs) in rat brain was investigated. We further explored whether the protective mechanism of CBSA-PEG-TIIA-NPs in cerebral ischemia was associated with modulating neuronal signaling pathways. The experimental cerebral ischemia model was established to evaluate the treatment efficacy of CBSA-PEG-TIIA-NPs. The pharmacokinetics demonstrated that CBSA-PEG-TIIA-NPs could obviously prolong circulation time and increase plasma concentration compared with intravenously administrated TIIA solution. The biodistribution and brain uptake study confirmed that CBSA-PEG-TIIA-NPs possessed better brain delivery efficacy with a high drug accumulation and fluorescence quantitative level in brain. CBSA-PEG-TIIA-NPs effectively reduced infarction volume, neurological dysfunctions, neutrophils infiltration and neuronal apoptosis. Moreover, CBSA-PEG-TIIA-NPs significantly suppressed the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines TNF-α and IL-8; upregulated the expression of anti-inflammatory cytokines IL-10 and increase TGF-β1 level in the ischemic brain. In addition, treatment with CBSA-PEG-TIIA-NPs markedly inhibited the mRNA expressions of GFAP, MMP-9, COX-2, p38MAPK, ERK1/2 and JNK, downregulated the protein levels of GFAP, MMP-9 and COX-2, as well as decreased the phosphorylation of ERK1/2, p38MAPK and JNK. These results demonstrated that CBSA-PEG-TIIA-NPs displayed remarkable neuroprotective effects on ischemic stroke through modulation of MAPK signal pathways involved in the cascades of neuroinflammation.

The antiproliferative effect of indomethacin-loaded lipid-core nanocapsules in glioma cells is mediated by cell cycle regulation, differentiation, and the inhibition of survival pathways

Despite recent advances in radiotherapy, chemotherapy, and surgical techniques, glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) prognosis remains dismal. There is an urgent need for new therapeutic strategies. Nanoparticles of biodegradable polymers for anticancer drug delivery have attracted intense interest in recent years because they can provide sustained, controlled, and targeted delivery. Here, we investigate the mechanisms involved in the antiproliferative effect of indomethacin-loaded lipid-core nanocapsules (IndOH-LNC) in glioma cells. IndOH-LNC were able to reduce cell viability by inducing apoptotic cell death in C6 and U138-MG glioma cell lines. Interestingly, IndOH-LNC did not affect the viability of primary astrocytes, suggesting that this formulation selectively targeted transformed cells. Mechanistically, IndOH-LNC induced inhibition of cell growth and cell-cycle arrest to be correlated with the inactivation of AKT and β-catenin and the activation of GSK-3β. IndOH-LNC also induced G0/G1 and/or G2/M phase arrest, which was accompanied by a decrease in the levels of cyclin D1, cyclin B1, pRb, and pcdc2 and an increase in the levels of Wee1 CDK inhibitor p21^WAF1. Additionally, IndOH-LNC promoted GBM cell differentiation, observed as upregulation of glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) protein and downregulation of nestin and CD133. Taken together, the crosstalk among antiproliferative effects, cell-cycle arrest, apoptosis, and cell differentiation should be considered when tailoring pharmacological interventions aimed at reducing glioma growth by using formulations with multiples targets, such as IndOH-LNC.

Indomethacin-loaded lipid-core nanocapsules reduce the damage triggered by Aβ1-42 in Alzheimer's disease models

Neuroinflammation, characterized by the accumulation of activated microglia and reactive astrocytes, is believed to modulate the development and/or progression of Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Epidemiological studies suggesting that nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs decrease the risk of developing AD have encouraged further studies elucidating the role of inflammation in AD. Nanoparticles have become an important focus of neurotherapeutic research because they are an especially effective form of drug delivery. Here, we investigate the potential protective effect of indomethacin-loaded lipid-core nanocapsules (IndOH-LNCs) against cell damage and neuroinflammation induced by amyloid beta (Aβ)1-42 in AD models. Our results show that IndOH-LNCs attenuated Aβ-induced cell death and were able to block the neuroinflammation triggered by Aβ1-42 in organotypic hippocampal cultures. Additionally, IndOH-LNC treatment was able to increase interleukin-10 release and decrease glial activation and c-jun N-terminal kinase phosphorylation. As a model of Aβ-induced neurotoxicity in vivo, animals received a single intracerebroventricular injection of Aβ1-42 (1 nmol/site), and 1 day after Aβ1-42 infusion, they were administered either free IndOH or IndOH-LNCs (1 mg/kg, intraperitoneally) for 14 days. Only the treatment with IndOH-LNCs significantly attenuated the impairment of this behavior triggered by intracerebroventricular injection of Aβ1-42. Further, treatment with IndOH-LNCs was able to block the decreased synaptophysin levels induced by Aβ1-42 and suppress glial and microglial activation. These findings might be explained by the increase of IndOH concentration in brain tissue attained using drug-loaded lipid-core NCs. All these findings support the idea that blockage of neuroinflammation triggered by Aβ is involved in the neuroprotective effects of IndOH-LNCs. These data provide strong evidence that IndOH-LNC treatment may represent a promising approach for treating AD.

Nanoparticles in the treatment and diagnosis of neurological disorders: untamed dragon with fire power to heal

The incidence of neurological diseases of unknown etiology is increasing, including well-studied diseases such as Alzhiemer's, Parkinson's, and multiple sclerosis. The blood-brain barrier provides protection for the brain but also hinders the treatment and diagnosis of these neurological diseases, because the drugs must cross the blood-brain barrier to reach the lesions. Thus, attention has turned to developing novel and effective delivery systems that are capable of carrying drug and that provide good bioavailability in the brain. Nanoneurotechnology, particularly application of nanoparticles in drug delivery, has provided promising answers to some of these issues in recent years. Here we review the recent advances in the understanding of several common forms of neurological diseases and particularly the applications of nanoparticles to treat and diagnose them. In addition, we discuss the integration of bioinformatics and modern genomic approaches in the development of nanoparticles.

FROM THE CLINICAL EDITOR

In this review paper, applications of nanotechnology-based diagnostic methods and therapeutic modalities are discussed addressing a variety of neurological disorders, with special attention to blood-brain barrier delivery methods. These novel nanomedicine approaches are expected to revolutionize several aspects of clinical neurology.

Amyloid-β induced toxicity involves ganglioside expression and is sensitive to GM1 neuroprotective action

The effect of Aβ25-35 peptide, in its fibrillar and non-fibrillar forms, on ganglioside expression in organotypic hippocampal slice cultures was investigated. Gangliosides were endogenously labeled with D-[1-C(14)] galactose and results showed that Aβ25-35 affected ganglioside expression, depending on the peptide aggregation state, that is, fibrillar Aβ25-35 caused an increase in GM3 labeling and a reduction in GD1b labeling, whereas the non-fibrillar form was able to enhance GM1 expression. Interestingly, GM1 exhibited a neuroprotective effect in this organotypic model, since pre-treatment of the hippocampal slices with GM1 10 μM was able to prevent the toxicity triggered by the fibrillar Aβ25-35, when measured by propidium iodide uptake protocol. With the purpose of further investigating a possible mechanism of action, we analyzed the effect of GM1 treatment (1, 6, 12 and 24h) upon the Aβ-induced alterations on GSK3β dephosphorylation/activation state. Results demonstrated an important effect after 24-h incubation, with GM1 preventing the Aβ-induced dephosphorylation (activation) of GSK3β, a signaling pathway involved in apoptosis triggering and neuronal death in models of Alzheimer's disease. Taken together, present results provide a new and important support for ganglioside participation in development of Alzheimer's disease experimental models and suggest a protective role for GM1 in Aβ-induced toxicity. This may be useful for designing new therapeutic strategies for Alzheimer's treatment.