1
|
Nguyen AT, Tresilian JR, Lipp OV, Tavora-Vieira D, Marinovic W. Evolving changes in cortical and subcortical excitability during movement preparation: A study of brain potentials and eye-blink reflexes during loud acoustic stimulation. Psychophysiology 2023:e14267. [PMID: 36748371 DOI: 10.1111/psyp.14267] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2022] [Revised: 01/21/2023] [Accepted: 01/21/2023] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
During preparation for action, the presentation of loud acoustic stimuli (LAS) can trigger movements at very short latencies in a phenomenon called the StartReact effect. It was initially proposed that a special, separate subcortical mechanism that bypasses slower cortical areas could be involved. We sought to examine the evidence for a separate mechanism against the alternative that responses to LAS can be explained by a combination of stimulus intensity effects and preparatory states. To investigate whether cortically mediated preparatory processes are involved in mediating reactions to LAS, we used an auditory reaction task where we manipulated the preparation level within each trial by altering the conditional probability of the imperative stimulus. We contrasted responses to non-intense tones and LAS and examined whether cortical activation and subcortical excitability and motor responses were influenced by preparation levels. Increases in preparation levels were marked by gradual reductions in reaction time (RT) coupled with increases in cortical activation and subcortical excitability - at both condition and trial levels. Interestingly, changes in cortical activation influenced motor and auditory but not visual areas - highlighting the widespread yet selective nature of preparation. RTs were shorter to LAS than tones, but the overall pattern of preparation level effects was the same for both stimuli. Collectively, the results demonstrate that LAS responses are indeed shaped by cortically mediated preparatory processes. The concurrent changes observed in brain and behavior with increasing preparation reinforce the notion that preparation is marked by evolving brain states which shape the motor system for action.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- An T Nguyen
- School of Population Health, Curtin University, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
| | | | - Ottmar V Lipp
- School of Psychology and Counselling, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | | | - Welber Marinovic
- School of Population Health, Curtin University, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Leow LA, Tresilian JR, Uchida A, Koester D, Spingler T, Riek S, Marinovic W. Acoustic stimulation increases implicit adaptation in sensorimotor adaptation. Eur J Neurosci 2021; 54:5047-5062. [PMID: 34021941 DOI: 10.1111/ejn.15317] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2020] [Revised: 05/07/2021] [Accepted: 05/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Sensorimotor adaptation is an important part of our ability to perform novel motor tasks (i.e., learning of motor skills). Efforts to improve adaptation in healthy and clinical patients using non-invasive brain stimulation methods have been hindered by inter-individual and intra-individual variability in brain susceptibility to stimulation. Here, we explore unpredictable loud acoustic stimulation as an alternative method of modulating brain excitability to improve sensorimotor adaptation. In two experiments, participants moved a cursor towards targets, and adapted to a 30º rotation of cursor feedback, either with or without unpredictable acoustic stimulation. Acoustic stimulation improved initial adaptation to sensory prediction errors in Study 1, and improved overnight retention of adaptation in Study 2. Unpredictable loud acoustic stimulation might thus be a potent method of modulating sensorimotor adaptation in healthy adults.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Li-Ann Leow
- School of Psychology, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia.,School of Human Movement and Nutrition Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | | | - Aya Uchida
- School of Psychology, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Dirk Koester
- BSP Business School Berlin, Berlin, Germany.,Department of Sport Science, Bielefeld University, Bielefeld, Germany
| | - Tamara Spingler
- Spinal Cord Injury Center, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Stephan Riek
- School of Human Movement and Nutrition Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia.,Graduate Research School, University of Sunshine Coast, Sippy Downs, Australia
| | | |
Collapse
|
3
|
Investigating the effect of anticipating a startling acoustic stimulus on preparatory inhibition. Neurophysiol Clin 2018; 49:137-147. [PMID: 30528379 DOI: 10.1016/j.neucli.2018.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2018] [Revised: 11/25/2018] [Accepted: 11/26/2018] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Motor-evoked potentials (MEPs) to transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) show a profound suppression when elicited during the instructed-delay of reaction time (RT) tasks. One predominant hypothesis is that this phenomenon, called "preparatory inhibition", reflects the operation of processes that suppress motor activity to withhold prepared (but delayed) responses, a form of impulse control. In addition, a startling acoustic stimulus (SAS) - a loud and narrow sound - can trigger the release of prepared responses in RT tasks. We predicted that, if such premature release is clearly forbidden, then anticipating a SAS during delay periods may be associated with increased preparatory inhibition for greater impulse control. METHODS Subjects performed a behavioural (n=16) and TMS (n=11) experiment. Both used a choice RT task that required subjects to choose a response based on a preparatory cue but to only release it after an imperative signal. SAS and TMS pulses were elicited at the end of the delay period and subjects were asked to do their best to only release their response after the imperative signal, even in the presence of SAS. SAS could be either rare or frequent, in separate blocks. RESULTS Consistent with the literature, SAS shortened RTs, especially when they occurred frequently. Moreover, MEPs were suppressed when subjects delayed prepared responses but this preparatory inhibition did not depend on whether SAS were frequent or rare. DISCUSSION The stronger RT shortening with frequent rather than rare SAS may be due to increased attention and/or reduced reactive inhibition to SAS, leaving preparatory inhibition unaffected.
Collapse
|
4
|
Leote J, Castellote JM, Casanova-Molla J, Navarro-Otano J, Nunes RG, Ferreira HA, Valls-Sole J. Motor preparation in picture naming tasks. BRAIN AND LANGUAGE 2018; 180-182:24-30. [PMID: 29677561 DOI: 10.1016/j.bandl.2018.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2017] [Revised: 03/06/2018] [Accepted: 04/03/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
In certain circumstances, words can be uttered as an involuntary action. We hypothesize that, once pronunciation of a word is fully prepared it can be triggered as a reflex with no need for cortical processing. We used modified protocols of picture naming tasks, with different levels of cognitive demands, to measure reaction time to word pronunciation (RTWP). In test trials, picture presentation was accompanied by a startling auditory stimulus (SAS). When one and the same picture was repeatedly shown, SAS shortened RTWP by about 30% (StartReact effect), which did not occur when random pictures were shown. If subjects were led to learn which picture was to appear after repeated presentation of three pictures in sequence, they exhibited again the StartReact effect. We conclude that word pronunciation may be fully prepared for execution in absence of cognitive demands. However, the StartReact effect is inhibited during cognitive tasks.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Joao Leote
- Instituto de Biofísica e Engenharia Biomédica, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal; Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de Lisboa, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal; Neurosurgery Department, Hospital Garcia de Orta, Almada, Portugal.
| | - Juan M Castellote
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, and National School of Occupational Medicine, Instituto de Salud Carlos, Spain
| | - Jordi Casanova-Molla
- EMG and Motor Control Unit, Neurology Department, Hospital Clinic, and IDIBAPS (Institut d'Investigació August Pi i Sunyer), Facultat de Medicina, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Judith Navarro-Otano
- EMG and Motor Control Unit, Neurology Department, Hospital Clinic, and IDIBAPS (Institut d'Investigació August Pi i Sunyer), Facultat de Medicina, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Rita G Nunes
- Department of Bioengineering and Institute for Systems and Robotics (ISR/IST), LARSyS, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Hugo A Ferreira
- Instituto de Biofísica e Engenharia Biomédica, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Josep Valls-Sole
- EMG and Motor Control Unit, Neurology Department, Hospital Clinic, and IDIBAPS (Institut d'Investigació August Pi i Sunyer), Facultat de Medicina, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Drummond NM, Cressman EK, Carlsen AN. Offline continuous theta burst stimulation over right inferior frontal gyrus and pre-supplementary motor area impairs inhibition during a go/no-go task. Neuropsychologia 2017; 99:360-367. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2017.04.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2016] [Revised: 04/04/2017] [Accepted: 04/05/2017] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
|
6
|
Marinovic W, Tresilian J, Chapple JL, Riek S, Carroll TJ. Unexpected acoustic stimulation during action preparation reveals gradual re-specification of movement direction. Neuroscience 2017; 348:23-32. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2017.02.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2016] [Revised: 02/06/2017] [Accepted: 02/08/2017] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
|
7
|
Drummond NM, Hayduk-Costa G, Leguerrier A, Carlsen AN. Effector-independent reduction in choice reaction time following bi-hemispheric transcranial direct current stimulation over motor cortex. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0172714. [PMID: 28263998 PMCID: PMC5338788 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0172714] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2016] [Accepted: 02/08/2017] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Increased reaction times (RT) during choice-RT tasks stem from a requirement for additional processing as well as reduced motor-specific preparatory activation. Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) can modulate primary motor cortex excitability, increasing (anodal stimulation) or decreasing (cathodal stimulation) excitability in underlying cortical tissue. The present study investigated whether lateralized differences in choice-RT would result from the concurrent modulation of left and right motor cortices using bi-hemispheric tDCS. Participants completed a choice-RT task requiring either a left or right wrist extension. In forced-choice trials an illuminated target indicated the required response, whereas in free-choice trials participants freely selected either response upon illumination of a central fixation. Following a pre-test trial block, offline bi-hemispheric tDCS (1 mA) was applied over the left and right motor cortices for 10 minutes, which was followed by a post-tDCS block of RT trials. Twelve participants completed three experimental sessions, two with real tDCS (anode right, anode left), as well as a sham tDCS session. Post-tDCS results showed faster RTs for both right and left responses irrespective of tDCS polarity during forced-choice trials, while sham tDCS had no effect. In contrast, no stimulation-related RT or response selection differences were observed in free-choice trials. The present study shows evidence of an effector-independent speeding of response initiation in a forced-choice RT task following bi-hemispheric tDCS and yields novel information regarding the functional effect of bi-hemispheric tDCS.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Neil M. Drummond
- School of Human Kinetics, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Gabrielle Hayduk-Costa
- School of Human Kinetics, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Alexandra Leguerrier
- School of Human Kinetics, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Anthony N. Carlsen
- School of Human Kinetics, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
- * E-mail: ,
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Aranha VP, Saxena S, Moitra M, Narkeesh K, Arumugam N, Samuel AJ. Reaction time norms as measured by ruler drop method in school-going South Asian children: A cross-sectional study. HOMO-JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE HUMAN BIOLOGY 2016; 68:63-68. [PMID: 28011080 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchb.2016.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2016] [Accepted: 10/21/2016] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
This study aimed to estimate normative range for reaction time using ruler drop method for school-going South Asian children between 6 and 12 years of age. A cross-sectional study was used to evaluate the reaction time for 204 children. Normal values for each age group were obtained. The results of multiple linear regressions showed a decrease in the reaction time values with age, and a significant change occurring between six and eight years of age. No difference in reaction time was obtained between boys and girls. Ruler drop method is an easy to use test and the results of this study provide a normative data for age groups 6-12 years ranging from 214.2ms to 248.8ms. These values can serve as a reference to screen children with delayed reaction time.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- V P Aranha
- Maharishi Markandeshwar Institute of Physiotherapy and Rehabilitation, Maharishi Markandeshwar University, Mullana 133207, Haryana, India
| | - S Saxena
- Department of Graduate studies, School of Physical and Occupational Therapy, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - M Moitra
- Maharishi Markandeshwar Institute of Physiotherapy and Rehabilitation, Maharishi Markandeshwar University, Mullana 133207, Haryana, India
| | - K Narkeesh
- Maharishi Markandeshwar Institute of Physiotherapy and Rehabilitation, Maharishi Markandeshwar University, Mullana 133207, Haryana, India
| | - N Arumugam
- Department of Physiotherapy, Punjabi University, Patiala 147002, Punjab, India
| | - A J Samuel
- Maharishi Markandeshwar Institute of Physiotherapy and Rehabilitation, Maharishi Markandeshwar University, Mullana 133207, Haryana, India.
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Investigation of timing preparation during response initiation and execution using a startling acoustic stimulus. Exp Brain Res 2016; 235:15-27. [PMID: 27614459 DOI: 10.1007/s00221-016-4774-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2016] [Accepted: 09/06/2016] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
The purpose of the current study was to examine the processes involved in the preparation of timing during response initiation and execution through the use of a startling acoustic stimulus (SAS). In Experiment 1, participants performed a delayed response task in which a two key-press movement was to be initiated 200 ms after an imperative signal (IS) with either a short (200 ms) or long (500 ms) interval between key-presses. On selected trials, a SAS was presented to probe the preparation processes associated with the initiation delay and execution of the inter-key interval. The SAS resulted in a significant decrease in the initiation time, which was attributed to a speeding of pacemaker pulses used to time the delay interval, caused by an increased activation due to the SAS. Conversely, the SAS delayed the short inter-key interval, which was attributed to temporary interference with cortical processing. In Experiment 2, participants performed a 500-ms delayed response task involving two key-presses 200 ms apart. In this condition, the SAS resulted in significantly decreased initiation time and a delayed inter-key interval (p = .053). Collectively, these results support a different timeline for the preparation of the delay interval, which is thought to be prepared in advance of the IS, and the inter-key interval, which is thought to be prepared following the IS. This conclusion provides novel information with regard to timing preparation that is consistent with models in which response preparation, initiation, and execution are considered separate and dissociable processes.
Collapse
|
10
|
Drummond NM, Cressman EK, Carlsen AN. Startle reveals decreased response preparatory activation during a stop-signal task. J Neurophysiol 2016; 116:986-94. [PMID: 27281747 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00216.2016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2016] [Accepted: 06/07/2016] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
In a stop-signal task participants are instructed to initiate a movement in response to a go signal, but to inhibit this movement if an infrequent stop signal is presented after the go. Reaction time (RT) in a stop-signal task is typically longer compared with that in a simple RT task, which may be attributed to a reduced readiness to initiate the response caused by the possibility of having to inhibit the response. The purpose of this experiment was to probe the preparatory activation level of the motor response during a stop-signal task using a startling acoustic stimulus (SAS), which has been shown to involuntarily trigger sufficiently prepared responses at a short latency. Participants completed two separate tasks: a simple RT task, followed by a stop-signal RT task. During both tasks, an SAS (120 dB) was pseudorandomly presented concurrently with the go signal. As expected, RT during the simple RT task was significantly shorter than during the stop-signal task. A significant reduction in RT was noted when an SAS was presented during the simple RT task; however, during the stop-signal task, an SAS resulted in either a significant speeding or a moderate delay in RT. Additionally, the subset of SAS trial responses with the shortest RT latencies produced during the stop-signal task were also delayed compared with the short-latency SAS trial responses observed during the simple RT task. Despite evidence that a response was prepared in advance of the go signal during a stop-signal task, it appears that the amount of preparatory activation was reduced compared with that achieved during a simple RT task.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Neil M Drummond
- School of Human Kinetics, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Erin K Cressman
- School of Human Kinetics, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Anthony N Carlsen
- School of Human Kinetics, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Watanabe T, Ishida K, Tanabe S, Nojima I. Preparatory state and postural adjustment strategies for choice reaction step initiation. Neuroscience 2016; 332:140-8. [PMID: 27393247 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2016.06.055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2016] [Revised: 06/29/2016] [Accepted: 06/29/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
A loud auditory stimulus (LAS) presented simultaneously with a visual imperative stimulus can reduce reaction time (RT) by automatically triggering a movement prepared in the brain and has been used to investigate a movement preparation. It is still under debate whether or not a response is prepared in advance in RT tasks involving choice responses. The purpose of the present study was to investigate the preparatory state of anticipatory postural adjustments (APAs) during a choice reaction step initiation. Thirteen young adults were asked to step forward in response to a visual imperative stimulus in two choice stepping conditions: (i) the responding side is not known and must be selected and (ii) the responding side is known but whether to initiate or inhibit a step response must be selected. LAS was presented randomly and simultaneously with the visual imperative stimulus. LAS significantly increased the occurrence rates of inappropriately initiated APAs while reducing the RTs of correct and incorrect trials in both task conditions, demonstrating that LAS triggered the prepared APA automatically. This observation suggests that APAs are prepared in advance and withheld from release until the appropriate timing during a choice reaction step initiation. The preparatory activity of APAs might be modulated by the inhibitory activity required by the choice tasks. The preparation strategy may be chosen for fast responses and is judged most suitable to comply with the tasks because inappropriately initiated APAs can be corrected without making complete stepping errors.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tatsunori Watanabe
- Department of Physical Therapy, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Aichi 461-8673, Japan
| | - Kazuto Ishida
- Department of Physical Therapy, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Aichi 461-8673, Japan
| | - Shigeo Tanabe
- Faculty of Rehabilitation, Fujita Health University School of Health Sciences, Aichi 470-1192, Japan
| | - Ippei Nojima
- Department of Physical Therapy, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Aichi 461-8673, Japan.
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Marinovic W, Tresilian JR. Triggering prepared actions by sudden sounds: reassessing the evidence for a single mechanism. Acta Physiol (Oxf) 2016; 217:13-32. [PMID: 26548462 DOI: 10.1111/apha.12627] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2015] [Revised: 10/13/2015] [Accepted: 11/02/2015] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Loud acoustic stimuli can unintentionally elicit volitional acts when a person is in a state of readiness to execute them (the StartReact effect). It has been assumed that the same subcortical pathways and brain regions underlie all instances of the StartReact effect. They are proposed to involve the startle reflex pathways, and the eliciting mechanism is distinct from other ways in which sound can affect the motor system. We present an integrative review which shows that there is no evidence to support these assumptions. We argue that motor command generation for learned, volitional orofacial, laryngeal and distal limb movements is cortical and the StartReact effect for such movements involves transcortical pathways. In contrast, command generation for saccades, locomotor corrections and postural adjustments is subcortical and subcortical pathways are implicated in the StartReact effect for these cases. We conclude that the StartReact effect is not a special phenomenon mediated by startle reflex pathways, but rather is a particular manifestation of the excitatory effects of intense stimulation on the central nervous system.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- W. Marinovic
- School of Health & Rehabilitation Sciences; The University of Queensland; Brisbane Qld Australia
- Centre for Sensorimotor Performance; School of Human Movement and Nutrition Sciences; The University of Queensland; Brisbane Qld Australia
| | - J. R. Tresilian
- Department of Psychology; University of Warwick; Coventry UK
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Wright ZA, Carlsen AN, MacKinnon CD, Patton JL. Degraded expression of learned feedforward control in movements released by startle. Exp Brain Res 2015; 233:2291-300. [PMID: 26105751 PMCID: PMC4512874 DOI: 10.1007/s00221-015-4298-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2014] [Accepted: 04/21/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Recent work has shown that preplanned motor programs can be rapidly released via fast conducting pathways using a startling acoustic stimulus. Our question was whether the startle-elicited response might also release a recently learned internal model, which draws on experience to predict and compensate for expected perturbations in a feedforward manner. Our initial investigation using adaptation to robotically produced forces showed some evidence of this, but the results were potentially confounded by co-contraction caused by startle. In this study, we eliminated this confound by asking subjects to make reaching movements in the presence of a visual distortion. Results show that a startle stimulus (1) decreased performance of the recently learned task and (2) reduced after-effect magnitude. Since the recall of learned control was reduced, but not eliminated during startle trials, we suggest that multiple neural centers (cortical and subcortical) are involved in such learning and adaptation. These findings have implications for motor training in areas such as piloting, teleoperation, sports, and rehabilitation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Zachary A Wright
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
14
|
Maslovat D, Drummond NM, Carter MJ, Carlsen AN. Reduced motor preparation during dual-task performance: evidence from startle. Exp Brain Res 2015; 233:2673-83. [PMID: 26026810 DOI: 10.1007/s00221-015-4340-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2015] [Accepted: 05/23/2015] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Dana Maslovat
- School of Kinesiology, University of British Columbia, War Memorial Gymnasium 210-6081 University Boulevard, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z1, Canada,
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
15
|
Nonnekes J, Carpenter MG, Inglis JT, Duysens J, Weerdesteyn V. What startles tell us about control of posture and gait. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2015; 53:131-8. [PMID: 25882206 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2015.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2014] [Revised: 03/12/2015] [Accepted: 04/03/2015] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Recently, there has been an increase in studies evaluating startle reflexes and StartReact, many in tasks involving postural control and gait. These studies have provided important new insights. First, several experiments indicate a superimposition of startle reflex activity on the postural response during unexpected balance perturbations. Overlap in the expression of startle reflexes and postural responses emphasizes the possibility of, at least partly, a common substrate for these two types of behavior. Second, it is recognized that the range of behaviors, susceptible to StartReact, has expanded considerably. Originally this work was concentrated on simple voluntary ballistic movements, but gait initiation, online step adjustments and postural responses can be initiated earlier by a startling stimulus as well, indicating advanced motor preparation of posture and gait. Third, recent experiments on StartReact using TMS and patients with corticospinal lesions suggest that this motor preparation involves a close interaction between cortical and subcortical structures. In this review, we provide a comprehensive overview on startle reflexes, StartReact, and their interaction with posture and gait.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jorik Nonnekes
- Radboud University Medical Center, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Department of Rehabilitation, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
| | - Mark G Carpenter
- School of Kinesiology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - J Timothy Inglis
- School of Kinesiology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Jacques Duysens
- Research Center for Movement Control and Neuroplasticity, Department of Kinesiology, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Vivian Weerdesteyn
- Radboud University Medical Center, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Department of Rehabilitation, Nijmegen, The Netherlands; Sint Maartenskliniek Research, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Nonnekes J, Arrogi A, Munneke MAM, van Asseldonk EHF, Oude Nijhuis LB, Geurts AC, Weerdesteyn V. Subcortical structures in humans can be facilitated by transcranial direct current stimulation. PLoS One 2014; 9:e107731. [PMID: 25233458 PMCID: PMC4169471 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0107731] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2014] [Accepted: 08/18/2014] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is a noninvasive brain stimulation technique that alters cortical excitability. Interestingly, in recent animal studies facilitatory effects of tDCS have also been observed on subcortical structures. Here, we sought to provide evidence for the potential of tDCS to facilitate subcortical structures in humans as well. Subjects received anodal-tDCS and sham-tDCS on two separate testing days in a counterbalanced order. After stimulation, we assessed the effect of tDCS on two responses that arise from subcortical structures; (1) wrist and ankle responses to an imperative stimulus combined with a startling acoustic stimulus (SAS), and (2) automatic postural responses to external balance perturbations with and without a concurrent SAS. During all tasks, response onsets were significantly faster following anodal-tDCS compared to sham-tDCS, both in trials with and without a SAS. The effect of tDCS was similar for the dominant and non-dominant leg. The SAS accelerated the onsets of ankle and wrist movements and the responses to backward, but not forward perturbations. The faster onsets of SAS-induced wrist and ankle movements and automatic postural responses following stimulation provide strong evidence that, in humans, subcortical structures - in particular the reticular formation - can be facilitated by tDCS. This effect may be explained by two mechanisms that are not mutually exclusive. First, subcortical facilitation may have resulted from enhanced cortico-reticular drive. Second, the applied current may have directly stimulated the reticular formation. Strengthening reticulospinal output by tDCS may be of interest to neurorehabilitation, as there is evidence for reticulospinal compensation after corticospinal lesions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jorik Nonnekes
- Radboud University Medical Centre, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Department of Rehabilitation, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
- * E-mail:
| | - Anass Arrogi
- Radboud University Medical Centre, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Department of Rehabilitation, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Moniek A. M. Munneke
- Radboud University Medical Centre, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Department of Neurology/Clinical Neurophysiology, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | | | - Lars B. Oude Nijhuis
- Radboud University Medical Centre, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Department of Neurology/Clinical Neurophysiology, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Alexander C. Geurts
- Radboud University Medical Centre, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Department of Rehabilitation, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
- Sint Maartenskliniek Research, Development & Education, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Vivian Weerdesteyn
- Radboud University Medical Centre, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Department of Rehabilitation, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
- Sint Maartenskliniek Research, Development & Education, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Evidence for a response preparation bottleneck during dual-task performance: effect of a startling acoustic stimulus on the psychological refractory period. Acta Psychol (Amst) 2013; 144:481-7. [PMID: 24076331 DOI: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2013.08.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2012] [Revised: 05/31/2013] [Accepted: 08/19/2013] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The present study was designed to investigate the mechanism associated with dual-task interference in a psychological refractory period (PRP) paradigm. We used a simple reaction time paradigm consisting of a vocal response (R1) and key-lift task (R2) with a stimulus onset asynchrony (SOA) between 100ms and 1500ms. On selected trials we implemented a startling acoustic stimulus concurrent with the second stimulus to determine if we could involuntarily trigger the second response. Our results indicated that the PRP delay in the second response was present for both control and startle trials at short SOAs, suggesting the second response was not prepared in advance. These results support a response preparation bottleneck and can be explained via a neural activation model of preparation. In addition, we found that the reflexive startle activation was reduced in the dual-task condition for all SOAs, a result we attribute to prepulse inhibition associated with dual-task processing.
Collapse
|
18
|
The StartReact effect on self-initiated movements. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2013; 2013:471792. [PMID: 24106706 PMCID: PMC3784278 DOI: 10.1155/2013/471792] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2013] [Revised: 07/17/2013] [Accepted: 08/01/2013] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Preparation of the motor system for movement execution involves an increase in excitability of motor pathways. In a reaction time task paradigm, a startling auditory stimulus (SAS) delivered together with the imperative signal (IS) shortens reaction time significantly. In self-generated tasks we considered that an appropriately timed SAS would have similar effects. Eight subjects performed a ballistic wrist extension in two blocks: reaction, in which they responded to a visual IS, and action, in which they moved when they wished within a predetermined time window. In 20-25% of the trials, a SAS was applied. We recorded electromyographic activity of wrist extension and wrist movement kinematic variables. No effects of SAS were observed in action trials when movement was performed before or long after SAS application. However, a cluster of action trials was observed within 200 ms after SAS. These trials showed larger EMG bursts, shorter movement time, shorter time to peak velocity, and higher peak velocity than other action trials (P < 0.001 for all), with no difference from Reaction trials containing SAS. The results show that SAS influences the execution of self-generated human actions as it does with preprogrammed reaction time tasks during the assumed building up of preparatory activity before execution of the willed motor action.
Collapse
|
19
|
Nonnekes J, Scotti A, Oude Nijhuis LB, Smulders K, Queralt A, Geurts ACH, Bloem BR, Weerdesteyn V. Are postural responses to backward and forward perturbations processed by different neural circuits? Neuroscience 2013; 245:109-20. [PMID: 23624061 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2013.04.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2013] [Revised: 04/15/2013] [Accepted: 04/16/2013] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Startle pathways may contribute to rapid accomplishment of postural stability. Here we investigate the possible influence of a startling auditory stimulus (SAS) on postural responses. We formulated four specific questions: (1) can a concurrent SAS shorten the onset of automatic postural responses?; and if so (2) is this effect different for forward versus backward perturbations?; (3) does this effect depend on prior knowledge of the perturbation direction?; and (4) is this effect different for low- and high-magnitude perturbations? Balance was perturbed in 11 healthy participants by a movable platform that suddenly translated forward or backward. Each participant received 160 perturbations, 25% of which were combined with a SAS. We varied the direction and magnitude of the perturbations, as well as the prior knowledge of perturbation direction. Perturbation trials were interspersed with SAS-only trials. The SAS accelerated and strengthened postural responses with clear functional benefits (better balance control), but this was only true for responses that protected against falling backwards (i.e. in tibialis anterior and rectus femoris). These muscles also demonstrated the most common SAS-triggered responses without perturbation. Increasing the perturbation magnitude accelerated postural responses, but again with a larger acceleration for backward perturbations. We conclude that postural responses to backward and forward perturbations may be processed by different neural circuits, with influence of startle pathways on postural responses to backward perturbations. These findings give directions for future studies investigating whether deficits in startle pathways may explain the prominent backward instability seen in patients with Parkinson's disease and progressive supranuclear palsy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- J Nonnekes
- Radboud University Medical Centre, Nijmegen Centre for Evidence Based Practice, Department of Rehabilitation, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
20
|
When unintended movements “leak” out: A startling acoustic stimulus can elicit a prepared response during motor imagery and action observation. Neuropsychologia 2013; 51:838-44. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2013.01.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2012] [Revised: 01/09/2013] [Accepted: 01/14/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
|
21
|
Drummond NM, Carlsen AN, Cressman EK. Motor preparation is delayed for both directly and indirectly cued movements during an anticipation-timing task. Brain Res 2013; 1506:44-57. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2013.02.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2012] [Revised: 02/06/2013] [Accepted: 02/15/2013] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
|
22
|
Marinovic W, de Rugy A, Lipp OV, Tresilian JR. Responses to loud auditory stimuli indicate that movement-related activation builds up in anticipation of action. J Neurophysiol 2013; 109:996-1008. [DOI: 10.1152/jn.01119.2011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Previous research using a loud acoustic stimulus (LAS) to investigate motor preparation in reaction time (RT) tasks indicates that responses can be triggered well in advance of the presentation of an imperative stimulus (IS). This is intriguing given that high levels of response preparation cannot be maintained for long periods (≈ 200 ms). In the experiments reported here we sought to assess whether response-related activation increases gradually over time in simple RT tasks. In experiment 1, a LAS was presented at different times just prior to the presentation of the IS to probe the level of activation for the motor response. In experiment 2, the same LAS was presented at different times after the presentation of the IS. The results provide evidence that response-related activation does increase gradually in anticipation of the IS, but it remains stable for a short time after this event. The data display a pattern consistent with the response being triggering by the LAS, rather than a reaction to the IS.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Welber Marinovic
- School of Psychology, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Brisbane, Australia
- Centre for Sensorimotor Neuroscience, School of Human Movement Studies, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Brisbane, Australia; and
| | - Aymar de Rugy
- Centre for Sensorimotor Neuroscience, School of Human Movement Studies, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Brisbane, Australia; and
| | - Ottmar V. Lipp
- School of Psychology, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Brisbane, Australia
| | - James R. Tresilian
- Department of Psychology, University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Using a startling acoustic stimulus to investigate underlying mechanisms of bradykinesia in Parkinson's disease. Neuropsychologia 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2012.11.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
|
24
|
Maslovat D, Kennedy PM, Forgaard CJ, Chua R, Franks IM. The effects of prepulse inhibition timing on the startle reflex and reaction time. Neurosci Lett 2012; 513:243-7. [PMID: 22387455 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2012.02.052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2012] [Accepted: 02/14/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
A loud acoustic stimulus has been shown to provoke a reflexive startle response and accelerate simple reaction times. However, an auditory prepulse presented in advance of a startling stimulus can reduce the effect of the startling stimulus. The current study examined the effect of the timing of the prepulse on startle-induced reaction times and the startle reflex. The task was to perform a 30° arm extension movement in response to a visual "go" stimulus. On selected trials, an auditory prepulse (80dB) was presented either 100ms, 500ms or 1000ms prior to the "go" signal. In addition, an auditory startling stimulus (124dB) was presented in conjunction with the "go" signal on some trials. Our results indicated that an auditory prepulse presented 100ms, and to a lesser extent 500ms, significantly decreased the amplitude of the startle reflex; however, the reaction time acceleration associated with the startling acoustic stimulus (SAS) was unaffected. The differential effect of the prepulse on the startle reflex and reaction time acceleration confirm different neural pathways for these effects while the differential effect of the prepulse on the control and startle RTs suggest different mechanisms for movement initiation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dana Maslovat
- School of Kinesiology, University of British Columbia, Canada.
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
25
|
Investigation of stimulus–response compatibility using a startling acoustic stimulus. Brain Cogn 2012; 78:1-6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bandc.2011.10.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2011] [Revised: 09/13/2011] [Accepted: 10/26/2011] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
|
26
|
Carlsen AN, Maslovat D, Franks IM. Preparation for voluntary movement in healthy and clinical populations: evidence from startle. Clin Neurophysiol 2011; 123:21-33. [PMID: 22033029 DOI: 10.1016/j.clinph.2011.04.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2011] [Revised: 04/11/2011] [Accepted: 04/23/2011] [Indexed: 10/15/2022]
Abstract
In this review we provide a summary of the observations made regarding advance preparation of the motor system when presenting a startling acoustic stimulus (SAS) during various movement tasks. The predominant finding from these studies is that if the participant is prepared to make a particular movement a SAS can act to directly and quickly trigger the prepared action. A similar effect has recently been shown in patients with Parkinson's disease. This "StartReact" effect has been shown to be a robust indicator of advance motor programming as it can involuntarily release whatever movement has been prepared. We review the historical origins of the StartReact effect and the experimental results detailing circumstances where advance preparation occurs, when it occurs, and how these processes change with practice for both healthy and clinical populations. Data from some of these startle experiments has called into question some of the previously held hypotheses and assumptions with respect to the nature of response preparation and initiation, and how the SAS results in early response expression. As such, a secondary focus is to review previous hypotheses and introduce an updated model of how the SAS may interact with response preparation and initiation channels from a neurophysiological perspective.
Collapse
|
27
|
Valls-Sole J. Assessment of excitability in brainstem circuits mediating the blink reflex and the startle reaction. Clin Neurophysiol 2011; 123:13-20. [PMID: 22030138 DOI: 10.1016/j.clinph.2011.04.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2011] [Revised: 04/13/2011] [Accepted: 04/15/2011] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Excitability is probably the concept that fits better with the definition of the role of neurophysiology in the study of brainstem functions and circuits. Neurophysiological techniques are likely the best suited of all paraclinical tests for documenting the eventual excitability changes that may occur in certain physiological states and in many neurological disorders. The best known test of brainstem excitability is the blink reflex. While a single stimulus can already indicate the readiness of the interneuronal path and the facial motoneurons to fire, pairs of stimuli (conditioning and test) are suited to analyze the degree of excitability recovery after a single discharge. Another brainstem reflex circuit, which excitability testing can be of interest for physiological and clinical exams is the one involved in the startle reaction. The size of the responses and their habituation are the typical measures of excitability of the startle reflex circuit. Prepulse inhibition is a method to modulate both, the blink reflex and the startle reaction. It is defined as the inhibitory effect caused by a stimulus of an intensity low enough not to induce a response by itself on the response elicited by a subsequent stimulus. The circuits of the blink reflex, startle reaction and prepulse inhibition share some commonalities but they are different enough for the three techniques to provide unique, clinically relevant, information in certain conditions. The role of neurophysiology is not limited to testing those functions. It is important also for the assessment of many other circuits, such as those implicated in eye movements, vestibular reflexes, arousal, sleep, breathing, or autonomic reactions, which are not considered in this review.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Josep Valls-Sole
- EMG Unit, Neurology Department, Hospital Clinic, University of Barcelona, Spain.
| |
Collapse
|
28
|
Forgaard CJ, Maslovat D, Carlsen AN, Franks IM. Default motor preparation under conditions of response uncertainty. Exp Brain Res 2011; 215:235-45. [DOI: 10.1007/s00221-011-2893-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2011] [Accepted: 09/26/2011] [Indexed: 10/16/2022]
|
29
|
Soto O, Valls-Solé J, Kumru H. Paired-pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation during preparation for simple and choice reaction time tasks. J Neurophysiol 2010; 104:1392-400. [PMID: 20592122 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00620.2009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Motor preparation for execution of both simple and choice reaction time tasks (SRT and CRT) involves enhancement of corticospinal excitability (CE). However, motor preparation also implies changes in inhibitory control that have thus far been much less studied. Short-interval intracortical inhibition (SICI) has been shown to decrease before CE increases. Therefore we reasoned that, if SICI contributes to inhibitory control of voluntary movement during the preparatory phase, it would be larger in CRT than in SRT because of the need to keep the movement unreleased until the uncertainty resolves on which task is required. We measured changes in SICI and in CE at different time points preceding motor reaction in normal subjects. Single-pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation (spTMS) and paired-pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation (ppTMS) produced time-dependent changes in both SRT and CRT, with shortening when applied close to the presentation of the imperative signal ("early") and lengthening when applied near the expected reaction ("late"). In addition, at all stimulation time points, reaction time was shorter with ppTMS than that with spTMS, but there was no consistent association between the amount of SICI and reaction time changes. At early stimulation time points, CE was reduced in CRT but not in SRT. However, SICI in CRT was not different from SICI in SRT. At late stimulation time points, SICI decreased just before enhancement of CE. Our findings indicate that inhibitory circuits other than SICI are responsible for setting the level of CE at earlier parts of the reaction time period. Although the decrease in SICI may contribute to the increase in CE at the last part of the premotor period, the two phenomena are not dependent on each other.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Oscar Soto
- Neurology Department, Clínica Teknon, Institut d'Investigació Biomèdica August Pi i Sunyer, Centro de Investigación Biomèdica en Red de Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
30
|
Carlsen AN, Maslovat D, Lam MY, Chua R, Franks IM. Considerations for the use of a startling acoustic stimulus in studies of motor preparation in humans. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2010; 35:366-76. [PMID: 20466020 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2010.04.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2009] [Revised: 04/27/2010] [Accepted: 04/29/2010] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Recent studies have used a loud (> 120 dB) startle-eliciting acoustic stimulus as a probe to investigate early motor response preparation in humans. The use of a startle in these studies has provided insight into not only the neurophysiological substrates underlying motor preparation, but also into the behavioural response strategies associated with particular stimulus-response sets. However, as the use of startle as a probe for preparation is a relatively new technique, a standard protocol within the context of movement paradigms does not yet exist. Here we review the recent literature using startle as a probe during the preparation phase of movement tasks, with an emphasis on how the experimental parameters affect the results obtained. Additionally, an overview of the literature surrounding the startle stimulus parameters is provided, and factors affecting the startle response are considered. In particular, we provide a review of the factors that should be taken into consideration when using a startling stimulus in human research.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anthony N Carlsen
- School of Human Kinetics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada.
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
31
|
Carlsen AN, Mackinnon CD. Motor preparation is modulated by the resolution of the response timing information. Brain Res 2010; 1322:38-49. [PMID: 20138165 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2010.01.076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2009] [Revised: 01/25/2010] [Accepted: 01/27/2010] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
In the present experiment, the temporal predictability of response time was systematically manipulated to examine its effect on the time course of motor pre-programming and release of the intended movement by an acoustic startle stimulus. Participants performed a ballistic right wrist extension task in four different temporal conditions: 1) a variable foreperiod simple RT task, 2) a fixed foreperiod simple RT task, 3) a low resolution countdown anticipation-timing task, and 4) a high resolution anticipation-timing task. For each task, a startling acoustic stimulus (124dB) was presented at several intervals prior to the "go" signal ("go" -150ms, -500ms, and -1500ms). Results from the startle trials showed that the time course of movement pre-programming was affected by the temporal uncertainty of the imperative "go" cue. These findings demonstrate that the resolution of the timing information regarding the response cue has a marked effect on the timing of movement preparation such that under conditions of low temporal resolution, participants plan the movement well in advance in accordance with the anticipated probability of onset of the cue, whereas movement preparation is delayed until less than 500ms prior to response time when continuous temporal information is provided.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anthony N Carlsen
- Department of Physical Therapy and Human Movement Sciences, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, 645 N. Michigan Ave., Chicago, IL 60611, USA.
| | | |
Collapse
|
32
|
Carlsen AN, Chua R, Inglis JT, Sanderson DJ, Franks IM. Differential effects of startle on reaction time for finger and arm movements. J Neurophysiol 2009; 101:306-14. [PMID: 19005006 PMCID: PMC2637008 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00878.2007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2008] [Accepted: 11/03/2008] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent studies using a reaction time (RT) task have reported that a preprogrammed response could be triggered directly by a startling acoustic stimulus (115-124 dB) presented along with the usual "go" signal. It has been suggested that details of the upcoming response could be stored subcortically and are accessible by the startle volley, directly eliciting the correct movement. However, certain muscles (e.g., intrinsic hand) are heavily dependent on cortico-motoneuronal connections and thus would not be directly subject to the subcortical startle volley in a similar way to muscles whose innervations include extensive reticular connections. In this study, 14 participants performed 75 trials in each of two tasks within a RT paradigm: an arm extension task and an index finger abduction task. In 12 trials within each task, the regular go stimulus (82 dB) was replaced with a 115-dB startling stimulus. Results showed that, in the arm task, the presence of a startle reaction led to significantly shorter latency arm movements compared with the effect of the increased stimulus intensity alone. In contrast, for the finger task, no additional decrease in RT caused by startle was observed. Taken together, these results suggest that only movements that involve muscles more strongly innervated by subcortical pathways are susceptible to response advancement by startle.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anthony N Carlsen
- School of Human Kinetics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z1, Canada.
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
33
|
Queralt A, Weerdesteyn V, van Duijnhoven HJR, Castellote JM, Valls-Solé J, Duysens J. The effects of an auditory startle on obstacle avoidance during walking. J Physiol 2008; 586:4453-63. [PMID: 18653659 DOI: 10.1113/jphysiol.2008.156042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Movement execution is speeded up when a startle auditory stimulus is applied with an imperative signal in a simple reaction time task experiment, a phenomenon described as StartReact. The effect has been recently observed in a step adjustment task requiring fast selection of specific movements in a choice reaction time task. Therefore, we hypothesized that inducing a StartReact effect may be beneficial in obstacle avoidance under time pressure, when subjects have to perform fast gait adjustments. Twelve healthy young adults walked on a treadmill and obstacles were released in specific moments of the step cycle. On average the EMG onset latency in the biceps femoris shortened by 20% while amplitude increased by 50%, in trials in which an auditory startle accompanied obstacle avoidance. The presentation of a startle increased the probability of using a long step strategy, enlarged stride length modifications and resulted in higher success rates, to avoid the obstacle. We also examined the effects of the startle in a condition in which the obstacle was not present in comparison to a condition in which the obstacle was visibly present but it did not fall. In the latter condition, the obstacle avoidance reaction occurred with a similar latency but smaller amplitude as in trials in which the obstacle was actually released. Our results suggest that the motor programmes used for obstacle avoidance are probably stored at subcortical structures. The release of these motor programmes by a startling auditory stimulus may combine intersensory facilitation and the StartReact effect.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ana Queralt
- Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
34
|
Motor preparation in an anticipation-timing task. Exp Brain Res 2008; 190:453-61. [DOI: 10.1007/s00221-008-1487-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2008] [Accepted: 07/02/2008] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
|
35
|
Valls-Solé J, Kumru H, Kofler M. Interaction between startle and voluntary reactions in humans. Exp Brain Res 2008; 187:497-507. [DOI: 10.1007/s00221-008-1402-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 110] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/25/2007] [Accepted: 04/19/2008] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
|
36
|
Startle reveals an absence of advance motor programming in a Go/No-go task. Neurosci Lett 2008; 434:61-5. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2008.01.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2007] [Revised: 01/04/2008] [Accepted: 01/11/2008] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
|
37
|
Kumru H, Vidal J, Kofler M, Benito J, Garcia A, Valls-Solé J. Exaggerated auditory startle responses in patients with spinal cord injury. J Neurol 2008; 255:703-9. [DOI: 10.1007/s00415-008-0780-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2007] [Revised: 10/03/2007] [Accepted: 10/16/2007] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
|
38
|
Oude Nijhuis LB, Janssen L, Bloem BR, van Dijk JG, Gielen SC, Borm GF, Overeem S. Choice reaction times for human head rotations are shortened by startling acoustic stimuli, irrespective of stimulus direction. J Physiol 2007; 584:97-109. [PMID: 17656433 PMCID: PMC2277050 DOI: 10.1113/jphysiol.2007.136291] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Auditory startle reflexes can accelerate simple voluntary reaction times (StartReact effect). To investigate the role of startle reflexes on more complex motor behaviour we formulated two questions: (1) can auditory startle reflexes shorten choice reaction times?; (2) is the StartReact effect differentially modulated when startling auditory stimuli are delivered ipsilaterally or contralaterally to an imperative 'go' signal? We instructed 16 healthy subjects to rotate their head as rapidly as possible to the left or to right in response to a guiding visual imperative stimulus (IS), in both a simple and choice reaction protocol. Startling acoustic stimuli (113 dB) were delivered simultaneously with the IS (from either the same or opposite side) to induce the StartReact effect. We recorded kinematics of head rotations and electromyographic responses. The StartReact effect was present during choice reaction tasks (56 ms onset reduction; P < 0.001). The presentation side of the startling stimulus (left/right) did not influence the effect in choice reaction tasks. We observed a directional effect in simple reaction tasks, but this probably occurred due to a flooring effect of reaction times. Onsets of EMG responses in neck muscles were not influenced by the direction of the acoustic startling stimulus. Startling acoustic stimuli decrease reaction times not only in simple but also in choice reaction time tasks, suggesting that startle reflexes can accelerate adequate human motor responses. The absence of a clear directional sensitivity of reaction times to startling acoustic stimuli suggests that the acceleration is not highly specific, but seems to provide a global preparatory effect upon which further tailored action can be undertaken more quickly.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lars B Oude Nijhuis
- Department of Neurology, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre, 935, PO Box 9101, 6500 HB Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
39
|
MacKinnon CD, Bissig D, Chiusano J, Miller E, Rudnick L, Jager C, Zhang Y, Mille ML, Rogers MW. Preparation of anticipatory postural adjustments prior to stepping. J Neurophysiol 2007; 97:4368-79. [PMID: 17460098 DOI: 10.1152/jn.01136.2006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 165] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Step initiation involves anticipatory postural adjustments (APAs) that propel the body mass forward and laterally before the first step. This study used a startle-like acoustic stimulus (SAS) and transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) to examine the preparation of APAs before forward stepping. After an instructed delay period, subjects initiated forward steps in reaction to a visual "go" cue. TMS or SAS was delivered before (-1,400 or -100 ms), on (0 ms), or after (+100 ms for TMS, +200 ms for SAS) the imperative "go" cue. Ground reaction forces and electromyographic activity were recorded. In control trials, the mean reaction time was 217 +/- 38 ms. In contrast, the SAS evoked APAs that had an average onset of 110 +/- 54 ms, whereas the incidence, magnitude, and duration of the APA increased as the stimulus timing approached the "go" cue. A facilitation of motor-evoked potentials in the initial agonist muscle was observed only when TMS was applied at +100 ms. These findings indicate that there was an initial phase of movement preparation during which the APA-stepping sequence was progressively assembled, and that this early preparation did not involve the corticomotor pathways activated by TMS. The subsequent increase in corticomotor excitability between the imperative stimulus and onset of the APA suggests that corticospinal pathways contribute to the voluntary initiation of the prepared APA-stepping sequence. These findings are consistent with a feedforward mode of neural control whereby the motor sequence, including the associated postural adjustments, is prepared before voluntary movement.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Colum D MacKinnon
- Department of Physical Therapy and Human Movement Sciences, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, 645 North Michigan Avenue, Suite 1100, Chicago, IL 60611, USA.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
40
|
Begeman M, Kumru H, Leenders K, Valls-Sole J. Unilateral reaction time task is delayed during contralateral movements. Exp Brain Res 2007; 181:469-75. [PMID: 17443315 DOI: 10.1007/s00221-007-0944-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2007] [Accepted: 03/27/2007] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Performing unlearned unimanual tasks when simultaneously carrying out another task with the contralateral hand is known to be difficult. The dual task interference theory predicts that reaction time will be delayed if the investigated task is performed in the course of ongoing contralateral movements. Ballistic movements can be performed at maximal speed in simple reaction time (SRT) experiments when subjects have adequately prepared the motor system needed for movement execution. When fully prepared, activation of subcortical motor pathways by a startling auditory stimulus (SAS) triggers the whole reaction. In this study, we have examined dual task interference with reaction time in eight healthy volunteers. They were presented with a visual imperative signal to perform unilateral SRT either in a baseline condition (control trials) or while carrying out contralateral rhythmic oscillatory movements (test trials). A SAS was introduced in 25% of the trials in both conditions. SRT was significantly delayed in the interference test trial when compared to control trials either with or without SAS (P<0.001). Control and test trials with SAS were significantly faster than those without SAS in both conditions (P<0.001). However, there were no significant differences in the percentage SRT shortening induced by SAS or in the percentage SRT delay observed in the test trials. Our results suggest that performing rhythmic oscillatory movements with one limb slows SRT in the contralateral limb and that this effect is likely related to motor preparation changes. The effect described here can be of interest for physiological studies of interlimb coordination and the mechanisms underlying the dual task interference phenomenon.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Maaike Begeman
- Unitat d'EMG, Servei de Neurologia, Hospital Clinic, Facultad de Medicina, Institut d'Investigació Biomèdica August Pi i Sunyer, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
41
|
Castellote JM, Kumru H, Queralt A, Valls-Solé J. A startle speeds up the execution of externally guided saccades. Exp Brain Res 2006; 177:129-36. [PMID: 16944110 DOI: 10.1007/s00221-006-0659-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2006] [Accepted: 07/26/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
The control of eye movements depends in part on subcortical motor centres. Gaze is often directed towards salient visual stimuli of our environment with no conscious voluntary commands. To further understand to what extent preprogrammed eye movements can be triggered subcortically, we carried out a study in normal volunteers to examine the effects of a startling auditory stimulus (SAS) on externally guided saccades. A peripheral visual cue was presented in the horizontal plane at a site distant 15 degrees from the fixation point, and subjects were instructed to make a saccade to it. SAS was presented together with the peripheral visual cue in 20% of trials. To force rapid visual fixation at the end of the saccade, targets were loaded with a second cue, a small arrow pointing towards the right or the left (or a neutral sign), not distinguishable with peripheral vision. Subjects were requested to perform a flexion/extension wrist movement, according to the direction of the arrow (or not to move if the second cue was the neutral sign). SAS presented together with the visual target caused a significant shortening of the latency of saccadic movements. The wrist movements performed as a response to the second cue had similar reaction times regardless of whether the trial contained a SAS or not. Our results show that voluntary saccades to peripheral targets are speeded up by activation of the startle circuit, and that this effect does not cause a significant disturbance in the execution of simple in-target cues. These results suggest that subcortical structures play a main role in preparation of externally guided saccades.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Juan M Castellote
- Facultad de Ciencias de la Actividad Física y el Deporte, Universidad de Valencia, 46010, Valencia, Spain
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|