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Qin M, Gao Y, Guo S, Lu X, Zhao Q, Ge Z, Zhu H, Li Y. Establishment and evaluation of animal models of sepsis-associated encephalopathy. World J Emerg Med 2023; 14:349-353. [PMID: 37908801 PMCID: PMC10613796 DOI: 10.5847/wjem.j.1920-8642.2023.088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2023] [Accepted: 06/20/2023] [Indexed: 11/02/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Sepsis-associated encephalopathy (SAE) is a critical disease caused by sepsis. In addition to high mortality, SAE can also adversely affect life quality and lead to significant socioeconomic costs. This review aims to explore the development of evaluation animal models of SAE, giving insight into the direction of future research in terms of its pathophysiology and therapy. METHODS We performed a literature search from January 1, 2000, to December 31, 2022, in MEDLINE, PubMed, EMBASE, and Web of Science using related keywords. Two independent researchers screened all the accessible articles based on the inclusion and exclusion criteria and collected the relevant data of the studies. RESULTS The animal models for sepsis are commonly induced through cecal ligation and puncture (CLP) or lipopolysaccharide (LPS) injection. SAE can be evaluated using nervous reflex scores and sepsis evaluation during the acute phase, or through Morris water maze (MWM), open-field test, fear condition (FC) test, inhibitory avoidance, and other tests during the late phase. CONCLUSION CLP and LPS injection are the most common methods for establishing SAE animal models. Nervous reflexs cores, MWM, FC test, and inhibitory avoidance are widely used in SAE model analysis. Future research should focus on establishing a standardized system for SAE development and analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mubing Qin
- Emergency Department, State Key Laboratory of Complex Severe and Rare Diseases, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Peking Union Medical College, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing 100730, China
| | - Yanxia Gao
- Emergency Department, the First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450052, China
| | - Shigong Guo
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Southmead Hospital, Southmead Road, Bristol BS10 5NB, UK
| | - Xin Lu
- Emergency Department, State Key Laboratory of Complex Severe and Rare Diseases, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Peking Union Medical College, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing 100730, China
| | - Qian Zhao
- Health Service Department of the Guard Bureau of the Joint Staff Department, Beijing 100017, China
| | - Zengzheng Ge
- Emergency Department, State Key Laboratory of Complex Severe and Rare Diseases, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Peking Union Medical College, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing 100730, China
| | - Huadong Zhu
- Emergency Department, State Key Laboratory of Complex Severe and Rare Diseases, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Peking Union Medical College, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing 100730, China
| | - Yi Li
- Emergency Department, State Key Laboratory of Complex Severe and Rare Diseases, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Peking Union Medical College, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Beijing 100730, China
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Medina C, Krawczyk MC, Millan J, Blake MG, Boccia MM. Oxytocin-Cholinergic Central Interaction: Implications for Non-Social Memory Formation. Neuroscience 2022; 497:73-85. [PMID: 35752429 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2022.06.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2022] [Revised: 06/09/2022] [Accepted: 06/16/2022] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
Oxytocin (OT) and vasopressin (AVP) are two closely related neuropeptides implicated in learning and memory processes, anxiety, nociception, addiction, feeding behavior and social information processing. Regarding learning and memory, OT has induced long-lasting impairment in different behaviors, while the opposite was observed with AVP. We have previously evaluated the effect of peripheral administration of OT or its antagonist (AOT) on the inhibitory avoidance response of mice and on the modulation of cholinergic mechanisms. Here, we replicate and validate those results, but this time through central administration of neuropeptides, considering their poor passage through the blood-brain barrier (BBB). When we delivered OT (0.10 ng/mouse) and its antagonist (0.10 ng/mouse) through intracerebroventricular (ICV) injections, the neuropeptide impaired and AOT enhanced the behavioral performance on an inhibitory avoidance response evaluated 48 h after training in a dose-dependent manner. On top of that, we investigated a possible central interaction between OT and the cholinergic system. Administration of anticholinesterases inhibitors with access to the central nervous system (CNS), the activation of muscarinic acetylcholine (Ach) receptors and the increase of evoked ACh release using linopirdine (Lino) (3-10 µg/kg, IP), reversed the impairment of retention performance induced by OT. Besides, either muscarinic or nicotinic antagonists with unrestricted access to the CNS reduced the magnitude of the performance-facilitating effect of AOT's central infusion. We suggest that OT might induce a cholinergic hypofunction state, resulting in an impairment of IA memory formation, a process for which the cholinergic system is crucially necessary.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Medina
- Laboratorio de Neurofarmacología de los Procesos de Memoria, Cátedra de Farmacología, Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Universidad de Buenos Aires (UBA), Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - M C Krawczyk
- Laboratorio de Neurofarmacología de los Procesos de Memoria, Cátedra de Farmacología, Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Universidad de Buenos Aires (UBA), Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - J Millan
- Laboratorio de Neurofarmacología de los Procesos de Memoria, Cátedra de Farmacología, Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Universidad de Buenos Aires (UBA), Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - M G Blake
- Instituto de Fisiología y Biofísica (IFIBIO UBA-CONICET), Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Buenos Aires (UBA), Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - M M Boccia
- Laboratorio de Neurofarmacología de los Procesos de Memoria, Cátedra de Farmacología, Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Universidad de Buenos Aires (UBA), Buenos Aires, Argentina.
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Krawczyk MC, Millan J, Blake MG, Boccia MM. Role of prediction error and the cholinergic system on memory reconsolidation processes in mice. Neurobiol Learn Mem 2021; 185:107534. [PMID: 34619364 DOI: 10.1016/j.nlm.2021.107534] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2021] [Revised: 09/24/2021] [Accepted: 09/30/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
The ability to make predictions based on stored information is a general coding strategy. A prediction error (PE) is a mismatch between expected and current events. Our memories, like ourselves, are subject to change. Thus, an acquired memory can become active and update its content or strength by a labilization-reconsolidation process. Within the reconsolidation framework, PE drives the updating of consolidated memories. In the past our lab has made key progresses showing that a blockade in the central cholinergic system during reconsolidation can cause memory impairment, while reinforcement of cholinergic activity enhances it. In the present work we determined that PE is a necessary condition for memory to reconsolidate in an inhibitory avoidance task using both male and female mice. Depending on the intensity of the unconditioned stimulus (US) used during training, a negative (higher US intensity) or positive (lower US intensity/no US) PE on a retrieval session modified the behavioral response on a subsequent testing session. Furthermore, we demonstrated that the cholinergic system modulates memory reconsolidation only when PE is detected. In this scenario administration of oxotremorine, scopolamine or nicotine after memory reactivation either enhanced or impaired memory reconsolidation in a sex-specific manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- M C Krawczyk
- Laboratorio de Neurofarmacología de los Procesos de Memoria, Cátedra de Farmacología, Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Universidad de Buenos Aires (UBA), Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - J Millan
- Laboratorio de Neurofarmacología de los Procesos de Memoria, Cátedra de Farmacología, Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Universidad de Buenos Aires (UBA), Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - M G Blake
- Instituto de Fisiología y Biofísica (IFIBIO UBA-CONICET), Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Buenos Aires (UBA), Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - M M Boccia
- Laboratorio de Neurofarmacología de los Procesos de Memoria, Cátedra de Farmacología, Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Universidad de Buenos Aires (UBA), Buenos Aires, Argentina.
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Krawczyk MC, Millan J, Blake MG, Boccia MM. Critical role of hippocampal muscarinic acetylcholine receptors on memory reconsolidation in mice. Neurobiol Learn Mem 2020; 177:107360. [PMID: 33307182 DOI: 10.1016/j.nlm.2020.107360] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2020] [Revised: 11/23/2020] [Accepted: 12/07/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Over the years, experimental and clinical evidence has given support to the idea that acetylcholine (Ach) plays an essential role in mnemonic phenomena. On the other hand, the Hippocampus is already known to have a key role in learning and memory. What is yet unclear is how the Ach receptors may contribute to this brain region role during memory retrieval. The Ach receptors are divided into two broad subtypes: the ionotropic nicotinic acetylcholine receptors and the metabotropic muscarinic acetylcholine receptors. Back in 2010, we demonstrated for the first time the critical role of hippocampal α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors in memory reconsolidation process of an inhibitory avoidance response in mice. In the present work, we further investigate the possible implication of hippocampal muscarinic Ach receptors (mAchRs) in this process using a pharmacological approach. By specifically administrating agonists and antagonists of the different mAchRs subtypes in the hippocampus, we found that M1 and M2 but not M3 subtype may be involved in memory reconsolidation processes in mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- M C Krawczyk
- Laboratorio de Neurofarmacología de los Procesos de Memoria, Cátedra de Farmacología, Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Universidad de Buenos Aires (UBA) - CONICET, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - J Millan
- Laboratorio de Neurofarmacología de los Procesos de Memoria, Cátedra de Farmacología, Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Universidad de Buenos Aires (UBA) - CONICET, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - M G Blake
- Instituto de Fisiología y Biofísica (IFIBIO UBA-CONICET), Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Buenos Aires (UBA), Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - M M Boccia
- Laboratorio de Neurofarmacología de los Procesos de Memoria, Cátedra de Farmacología, Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Universidad de Buenos Aires (UBA) - CONICET, Buenos Aires, Argentina.
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Navarro NM, Krawczyk MC, Boccia MM, Blake MG. Extinction and recovery of an avoidance memory impaired by scopolamine. Physiol Behav 2017; 171:192-198. [PMID: 28069463 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2016.12.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2016] [Revised: 12/07/2016] [Accepted: 12/20/2016] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Pre-training administration of scopolamine (SCP) resembles situations of cholinergic dysfunction, leading to memory impairment of mice trained in an inhibitory avoidance task. We suggest here that SCP does not impair memory formation, but acquisition is affected in a way that reduces the strength of the stored memory, thus making this memory less able to control behavior when tested. Hence, a memory trace is stored, but is poorly expressed during the test. Although weakly expressed, this memory shows extinction during successive tests, and can be strengthened by using a reminder. Our results indicate that memories stored under cholinergic dysfunction conditions seem absent or lost, but are in fact present and experience common memory processes, such as extinction, and could be even recovered by using appropriate protocols.
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Affiliation(s)
- N M Navarro
- Universidad de Buenos Aires, CONICET, Facultad de Medicina, Departamento de Fisiología, Instituto de Fisiología y Biofísica Bernardo Houssay (IFIBIO), Paraguay, 2155, 7th floor, C1121ABG, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - M C Krawczyk
- Universidad de Buenos Aires, Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Cátedra de Farmacología, Junín, 956, 5th floor, C1113AAC, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - M M Boccia
- Universidad de Buenos Aires, Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Cátedra de Farmacología, Junín, 956, 5th floor, C1113AAC, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - M G Blake
- Universidad de Buenos Aires, CONICET, Facultad de Medicina, Departamento de Fisiología, Instituto de Fisiología y Biofísica Bernardo Houssay (IFIBIO), Paraguay, 2155, 7th floor, C1121ABG, Buenos Aires, Argentina.
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Reconsolidation-induced memory persistence: Participation of late phase hippocampal ERK activation. Neurobiol Learn Mem 2016; 133:79-88. [DOI: 10.1016/j.nlm.2016.06.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2016] [Revised: 06/10/2016] [Accepted: 06/13/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Impairment in the aversive memory of mice in the inhibitory avoidance task but not in the elevated plus maze through intra-amygdala injections of histamine. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2015; 135:237-45. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2015.05.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2014] [Revised: 05/18/2015] [Accepted: 05/19/2015] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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Krawczyk M, Blake M, Baratti C, Romano A, Boccia M, Feld M. Memory reconsolidation of an inhibitory avoidance task in mice involves cytosolic ERK2 bidirectional modulation. Neuroscience 2015; 294:227-37. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2015.03.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2015] [Revised: 03/05/2015] [Accepted: 03/09/2015] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
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Blake MG, Boccia MM, Krawczyk MC, Baratti CM. Hippocampal α7-nicotinic cholinergic receptors modulate memory reconsolidation: a potential strategy for recovery from amnesia. Neurobiol Learn Mem 2013; 106:193-203. [PMID: 24036397 DOI: 10.1016/j.nlm.2013.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2013] [Revised: 07/29/2013] [Accepted: 09/02/2013] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
When subjects are exposed to new learning experiences, the novel information could be acquired and eventually stored through memory consolidation process. The exposure of mice to a novel experience (a hole-board) after being trained in an inhibitory avoidance apparatus is followed by impaired performance of the avoidance memory in subsequent tests. The same impairing effect is produced when mice are exposed to the novel environment after the reactivation of the avoidance memory. This interfering effect is due to impaired consolidation or reconsolidation of the avoidance memory. The administration of the α7-nicotinic receptor agonist choline (Ch) in the dorsal hippocampus (0.8 μg/hippocampus) immediately after the inhibitory avoidance memory reactivation, allowed memory recovery. This effect of Ch was time-dependent, and retention performance was not affected in drug-treated mice that were not subjected to memory reactivation, suggesting that the effects on performance are not due to non-specific effects of the drug. The effects of Ch also depended on the age of the reactivated memory. Altogether, our results suggest that Ch exerts its effects by modulating memory reconsolidation, and that the memory impairment induced by new learning is a memory expression failure and not a storage deficit. Therefore, reconsolidation, among other functions, might serve to change whether a memory will be expressed in later tests. Summarizing, our results open new avenues about the behavioral significance and the physiological functions of memory reconsolidation, providing new strategies for recovering memories from some types of amnesia.
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Affiliation(s)
- M G Blake
- Laboratorio de Neurofarmacología de los Procesos de Memoria, Cátedra de Farmacología, Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Argentina.
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Blake M, Boccia M, Krawczyk M, Delorenzi A, Baratti C. Choline reverses scopolamine-induced memory impairment by improving memory reconsolidation. Neurobiol Learn Mem 2012; 98:112-21. [DOI: 10.1016/j.nlm.2012.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2012] [Revised: 06/18/2012] [Accepted: 07/01/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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Kornisiuk E, Snitcofsky M, Blanco C, Harvey AL, Stone TW, Jerusalinsky D. Memory impairment in rats by hippocampal administration of the serine protease subtilisin. Behav Brain Res 2010; 219:63-7. [PMID: 21185873 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2010.12.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2010] [Revised: 12/13/2010] [Accepted: 12/16/2010] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Since the serine protease subtilisin has been reported to generate a novel form of long-term depression (LTD) in rat hippocampal slices, the present work was designed to determine whether it has any effect on learning and memory processes. Rats were used to examine the effects of subtilisin, injected directly into the dorsal hippocampus, on task performance in a step-through inhibitory avoidance of a mild footshock. The administration of 100 ng of subtilisin into each hippocampus, immediately after training, was sufficient to induce a detectable learning deficit with a footshock stimulus of 0.5 mA. Higher doses produced dose-related impairments in memory consolidation. These effects were not the result of irreversible toxicity, since rats trained with a higher amplitude footshock (0.75 mA) were able to perform as control animals; therefore, the amnesic effect was not further evident. Furthermore, the administration of subtilisin before avoidance training did not produce any detectable effect on performance during the training or test sessions, indicating that neither acquisition nor consolidation was affected. It is concluded that the post-training administration of a serine protease inhibitor is able to produce robust deficits of memory consolidation consistent with its ability to generate LTD, raising the possibility that related molecules could play physiological or pathological roles in the modulation of learning and memory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edgar Kornisiuk
- Instituto de Biología Celular & Neurociencias Prof Eduardo De Robertis, Facultad de Medicina, University of Buenos Aires and CONICET, Buenos Aires, Argentina
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Boccia M, Blake M, Krawczyk M, Baratti C. Hippocampal alpha7 nicotinic receptors modulate memory reconsolidation of an inhibitory avoidance task in mice. Neuroscience 2010; 171:531-43. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2010.08.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2010] [Revised: 08/12/2010] [Accepted: 08/13/2010] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
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Blake MG, Boccia MM, Krawczyk MC, Baratti CM. Scopolamine prevents retrograde memory interference between two different learning tasks. Physiol Behav 2010; 102:332-7. [PMID: 21118701 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2010.11.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2010] [Revised: 11/08/2010] [Accepted: 11/22/2010] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Subjects exposed to learning experiences could store the new information through memory consolidation process. If consolidation is interfered by exposing the experimental subjects to another novel stimulus, memory of the first learning situation is sometimes disrupted. The cholinergic system is critically involved in acquisition of new information. Here, we use low doses of the muscarinic cholinergic receptor antagonist scopolamine (SCOP) to disrupt acquisition of new information, but sparing memory consolidation of previous memories. Mice were consecutively exposed to two learning situations: the inhibitory avoidance (IA) and the nose-poke habituation (NPH) tasks. The exposure of mice to the NPH task, after being trained in the IA apparatus, impairs consolidation of the avoidance memory in a manner related to the duration of the exposure to the NPH task. If the exposure to the NPH task occurred after reactivation of the avoidance memory, reconsolidation was impaired. Blockade of acquisition of the NPH task by SCOP allowed consolidation and reconsolidation of the avoidance memory. Results indicate that cholinergic system blockade by SCOP impairs acquisition but is less able to affect memory consolidation. The mere exposure and perception of a novel situation are not sufficient conditions to cause impairment of retention performance about previously learned information, but effective processing leading to acquisition of the NPH task information is necessary to cause the interference between both learning situations.
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Affiliation(s)
- M G Blake
- Laboratorio de Neurofarmacología de los Procesos de Memoria, Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Argentina.
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Blake MG, Boccia MM, Carcaboso AM, Chiappetta DA, Höcht C, Krawczyk MC, Sosnik A, Baratti CM. Novel long-term anticonvulsant treatment with gabapentin without causing memory impairment in mice. Epilepsy Behav 2010; 17:157-64. [PMID: 20079694 DOI: 10.1016/j.yebeh.2009.12.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2009] [Revised: 12/09/2009] [Accepted: 12/13/2009] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
We previously reported that administration of a single dose of gabapentin (GBP) immediately after training improves memory of mice in an inhibitory avoidance task (IA), whereas GBP administered repeatedly for 7 days impairs memory. This is in accordance with the observation that long-term clinical treatment with GBP may be associated with adverse cognitive side effects. In the present work we used a GBP-loaded poly(epsilon-caprolactone) implant, allowing controlled release of the drug and maintenance of constant plasma levels over 1 week. When GBP-loaded implants were inserted subcutaneously into mice, immediately after training in the IA task, memory consolidation was enhanced. Moreover, GBP released from implants had an anticonvulsant action against pentylenetetrazole-induced seizures. These results suggest that maintenance of stable GBP plasma levels could protect against seizures without causing memory impairment. Hence, the adverse cognitive effects might be avoided by stabilizing plasma levels of the drug.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariano G Blake
- Laboratory of Neuropharmacology of Memory Processes, Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy and Biochemistry, University of Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina.
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