Hypnotizability-related EEG alpha and theta activities during visual and somesthetic imageries

The Role of Interoceptive Sensitivity and Hypnotizability in Motor Imagery

Motor imagery (MI) requires the mental representation of the body, obtained by integrating exteroceptive and interoceptive information. This study aimed to investigate the role of interoceptive sensitivity (IS) in MI performed through visual and kinesthetic modalities by participants with low (lows, N = 26; SHSS: A, M + SD: 1.00 + 1.52), medium (mediums, N = 11; SHSS: A, 6.00 + 0.77) and high hypnotizability scores (highs, N = 16; SHSS:A, 9.75 + 1.24), as measured by the Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale: Form A. The three groups displayed different MI abilities and IS levels. The efficacy of MI was measured using the chronometric index and self-reported experience, while IS was measured using the Multidimensional Assessment of Interoceptive Awareness (MAIA) questionnaire. Alpha and beta power spectrum densities (PSDs) were extracted from the EEG signals acquired during baseline, actual movement and visually and kinesthetically imagined movements. The chronometric indices do not reveal significant differences between groups and imagery modalities. The self-report MI efficacy indicates better kinesthetic imagery in highs and mediums than in lows, and no modality difference among lows. The MAIA dimensions sustain the differences in subjective experience and almost all the EEG differences. The latter are slightly different in highs, mediums and lows. This is the first report of the major role played by IS in MI and strongly supports the theory of embodied cognition.

Physiological Correlates of Hypnotizability: Hypnotic Behaviour and Prognostic Role in Medicine

Studies in the field of experimental hypnosis highlighted the role of hypnotizability in the physiological variability of the general population. It is associated, in fact, with a few differences which are observable in the ordinary state of consciousness and in the absence of suggestions. The aim of the present scoping review is summarizing them and indicate their relevance to the neural mechanisms of hypnosis and to the prognosis and treatment of a few medical conditions. Individuals with high, medium and low hypnotizability scores display different cerebral functional differences-i.e., functional equivalence between imagery and perception/action, excitability of the motor cortex, interoceptive accuracy-possibly related to brain structural and functional characteristics, and different control of blood supply at peripheral and cerebral level, likely due to different availability of endothelial nitric oxide. These differences are reviewed to support the idea of their participation in hypnotic behaviour and to indicate their prognostic and therapeutic usefulness in a few medical conditions.

Is Hypnotic Induction Necessary to Experience Hypnosis and Responsible for Changes in Brain Activity?

The relevance of formal hypnotic induction to the experience of trance and its neural correlates is not clear, in that hypnotizability, beliefs and expectation of hypnosis may play a major role. The aim of the study was assessing the EEG brain activity of participants with high (highs) or low hypnotizability scores (lows), aware of their hypnotizability level and informed that the session will include simple relaxation, formal hypnotic induction and neutral hypnosis. A total of 16 highs and 15 lows (according to the Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale, form A) were enrolled. Their EEGs were recorded during consecutive conditions of open/closed-eyes relaxation, hypnotic induction, neutral hypnosis and post hypnosis not interrupted by interviews. The studied variables were theta, alpha and gamma power spectral density (PSD), and the Determinism (DET) and Entropy (ENT) of the EEG signal Multidimensional Recurrence Plot (mRP). Highs reported significantly greater changes in their state of consciousness than lows across the session. The theta, alpha and gamma PSD did not exhibit condition-related changes in both groups. The Alpha PSD was larger in highs than in lows on midline sites, and the different sides/regions' theta and gamma PSD were observed in the two groups independently from conditions. ENT showed no correlation with hypnotizability, while DET positively correlated with hypnotizability during hypnosis. In conclusion, the relevance of formal hypnotic induction to the experience of trance may be scarce in highs, as they are aware of their hypnotizability scores and expecting hypnosis. Cognitive processing varies throughout the session depending on the hypnotizability level.

EEG Evaluation of Stress Exposure on Healthcare Workers During COVID-19 Emergency: Not Just an Impression

Psychological distress among healthcare professionals, although already a common condition, was exacerbated by the COVID-19 pandemic. This effect has been generally self-reported or assessed through questionnaires. We aimed to identify potential abnormalities in the electrical activity of the brain of healthcare workers, operating in different roles during the pandemic. Cortical activity, cognitive performances, sleep, and burnout were evaluated two times in 20 COVID-19 frontline operators (FLCO, median age 29.5 years) and 20 operators who worked in COVID-19-free units (CFO, median 32 years): immediately after the outbreak of the pandemic (first session) and almost 6 months later (second session). FLCO showed higher theta relative power over the entire scalp (FLCO = 19.4%; CFO = 13.9%; p = 0.04) and lower peak alpha frequency of electrodes F7 (FLCO = 10.4 Hz; CFO = 10.87 Hz; p = 0.017) and F8 (FLCO = 10.47 Hz; CFO = 10.87 Hz; p = 0.017) in the first session. FLCO parietal interhemispheric coherence of theta (FLCO I = 0.607; FLCO II = 0.478; p = 0.025) and alpha (FLCO I = 0.578; FLCO II = 0.478; p = 0.007) rhythms decreased over time. FLCO also showed lower scores in the global cognitive assessment test (FLCO = 22.72 points; CFO = 25.56; p = 0.006) during the first session. The quantitative evaluation of the cortical activity might therefore reveal early signs of changes secondary to stress exposure in healthcare professionals, suggesting the implementation of measures to prevent serious social and professional consequences.

Cerebral Blood Flow in Healthy Subjects with Different Hypnotizability Scores

Hypnotizability is a cognitive trait associated with differences in the brachial artery flow-mediated dilatation of individuals with high hypnotizability (highs) and low hypnotizability scores (lows). The study investigated possible hypnotizability-related cerebrovascular differences. Among 24 healthy volunteers, the Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale Form A identified 13 medium-to-lows (med-lows), 11 medium-to-highs (med-highs), and 1 medium hypnotizable. Hypnotizability did not influence the significant changes produced by the trail making task (TMT), mental arithmetic task (MAT), hyperventilation (HVT), and rebreathing (RBT) on heart rate (HR), arterial blood pressure (ABP), and partial pressure of end-tidal CO₂ (P_ETCO₂), but moderated the correlations between the changes occurring during tasks with respect to basal conditions (Δ) in ABP and P_ETCO₂ with middle cerebral artery flow velocity (MCAv). In HVT, med-lows exhibited a significant correlation between ΔMCAv and ΔP_ETCO₂, and med-highs showed a significant correlation between ΔABP and ΔMCAv. Cerebrovascular reactivity (CVR) and conductance (ΔCVCi) were significantly correlated with ΔMCAv only in med-lows during HVT and RBT. For the first time, cerebrovascular reactivity related to hypnotizability was investigated, evidencing different correlations among hemodynamic variables in med-highs and med-lows.

Imagery-induced negative affect, social touch and frontal EEG power band activity

Social touch seems to modulate emotions, but its brain correlates are poorly understood. Here, we investigated if frontal power band activity in the electroencephalogram (EEG) during aversive mental imagery is modulated by social touch from one's romantic partner and a stranger. We observed the highest theta and beta power when imaging alone, next so when being touched by a stranger, with lowest theta and beta activity during holding hands with the loved one. Delta power was higher when being alone than with a stranger or a partner, with no difference between the two. Gamma power was highest during the stranger condition and lower both when being alone and with the partner, while alpha power did not change as a function of social touch. Theta power displayed a positive correlation with electrodermal activity supporting its relation to emotional arousal. Attachment style modulated the effect of touch on the EEG as only secure but not insecure partner bonding was associated with theta power reductions. Because theta power was sensitive to the experimental perturbations, mapped onto peripheral physiological arousal and reflected partner attachment style we suggest that frontal theta power might serve as an EEG derived bio-marker for social touch in emotionally significant dyads.

RESPONDING TO SENSORIMOTOR SUGGESTIONS: From Endothelial Nitric Oxide to the Functional Equivalence Between Imagery and Perception

The reduced cerebellar gray matter (GM) volume observed in highly hypnotizable individuals (highs) is likely due to the excessive release of endothelial nitric oxide in the brain and could account for their behavioral (postural and visuomotor control) and physiological (paradoxical pain control after cerebellar anodal stimulation) characteristics. Reduced cerebellar GM can induce low inhibition of the cerebral cortex, thus stronger functional equivalence (FE) between imagery and perception and greater proneness to respond to sensorimotor suggestions. In fact, stronger FE suggested in highs by behavioral studies has been confirmed by topological data analysis of EEG signals recorded during sensorimotor and imagery tasks. The authors' hypothesis cannot be applied to obstructive suggestions likely sustained by mechanisms related to socio-cognitive factors, i.e., oxytocin availability.

Spectral and topological analyses of the cortical representation of the head position: Does hypnotizability matter?

INTRODUCTION

The aim of this exploratory study was to assess the EEG correlates of head positions (which have never been studied in humans) in participants with different psychophysiological characteristics, as encoded by their hypnotizability scores. This choice is motivated by earlier studies suggesting different processing of vestibular/neck proprioceptive information in subjects with high (highs) and low (lows) hypnotizability scores maintaining their head rotated toward one side (RH).

METHODS

We analyzed EEG signals recorded in 20 highs and 19 lows in basal conditions (head forward) and during RH using spectral analysis, which captures changes localized to specific recording sites, and topological data analysis (TDA), which instead describes large-scale differences in processing and representing sensorimotor information.

RESULTS

Spectral analysis revealed significant differences related to head position for alpha 1, beta 2, beta 3, and gamma bands, but not to hypnotizability. TDA instead revealed global hypnotizability-related differences in the strengths of the correlations among recording sites during RH. Significant changes were observed in lows on the left parieto-occipital side and in highs in right frontoparietal region. Significant differences between the two groups were found in the occipital region, where changes were larger in lows than in highs.

CONCLUSIONS

This study reports finding of the EEG correlates of changes in the head posture for the first time, indicating that hypnotizability is related to the head posture representation/processing on large-scale networks and that spectral and topological data analyses provide complementary results.

Hypnotizability-related differences in written language

The study analyzed the writing products of subjects with high (highs) and low (lows) hypnotizability. The participants were asked to write short texts in response to highly imaginative scenarios in standard conditions. The texts were processed through computerized and manual methods. The results showed that the highs' texts were more sophisticated due to a higher number of abstract nouns, more intense and imaginative due to a larger number of similes, metaphors, and onomatopoeias, and less detailed due to a higher nouns-to-adjectives ratio. The differences in the use of abstract nouns and highly imageable expressions are discussed in relation to the preeminent left-hemisphere activity of highs during wakefulness and to a possibly different involvement of the precuneus, which is involved in hypnotic phenomena.

EEG sLORETA functional imaging during hypnotic arm levitation and voluntary arm lifting

This study (N = 37 with high, medium, and low hypnotizables) evaluated depth reports and EEG activity during both voluntary and hypnotically induced left-arm lifting with sLORETA functional neuroimaging. The hypnotic condition was associated with higher activity in fast EEG frequencies in anterior regions and slow EEG frequencies in central-parietal regions, all left-sided. The voluntary condition was associated with fast frequency activity in right-hemisphere central-parietal regions and slow frequency activity in left anterior regions. Hypnotizability did not have a significant effect on EEG activity, but hypnotic depth correlated with left hemisphere increased anterior slow EEG and decreased central fast EEG activity. Hypnosis had a minimal effect on depth reports among lows, a moderate one among mediums, and a large one among highs. Because only left-arm data were available, the full role of the hemispheres remains to be clarified.