Effects of optimized-SopungSunkiwon on memory impairment and enhancement

Learning and memory impairment induced by 1,4-butanediol is regulated by ERK1/2-CREB-BDNF signaling pathways in PC12 cells

1,4-butanediol (1,4-BD) is a known γ-hydroxybutyric acid (GHB) precursor which affects the nervous system after ingestion, leading to uncontrolled behavioral consequences. In the present study, we investigated whether 1,4-BD induces oxidative stress and inflammation in PC12 cells and evaluated the toxic effects of 1,4-BD associates with learning and memory. CCK-8 results revealed a dose-effect relationship between the cell viability of PC12 cells and 1,4-BD when the duration of action was 2 h or 4 h. Assay kits results showed that 1,4-BD decreased the levels of Glutathione (GSH), Glutathione peroxidase (GSH-px), Superoxide dismutase (SOD), Acetylcholine (Ach) and increased the levels of Malondialdehyde (MDA), Nitric oxide (NO) and Acetylcholinesterase (AchE). Elisa kits results indicated that 1,4-BD decreased the levels of synaptophysin I (SYN-1), Postsynaptic density protein-95 (PSD-95), Growth associated protein-43 (GAP-43) and increased the levels of Tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) and Interleukin- 6 (IL-6). RT-PCR results showed that the mRNA levels of PSD-95, SYN-1 and GAP-43 were significantly decreased. The expression of phosphorylation extracellular signal-regulated protein kinase 1/2 (p-ERK1/2), phosphorylation cAMP response element binding protein (p-CREB) and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) proteins were significantly decreased in PC12 cells by protein blotting. Overall, these results suggest that 1,4-BD may affect synaptic plasticity via the ERK1/2-CREB-BDNF pathway, leading to Ach release reduction and ultimately to learning and memory impairment. Furthermore, oxidative stress and inflammation induced by 1,4-BD may also result in learning and memory deficits. These findings will enrich the toxicity data of 1.4-BD associated with learning and memory impairment.

Herbal drugs and natural bioactive products as potential therapeutics: A review on pro-cognitives and brain boosters perspectives

Memory, one of the most vital aspects of the human brain, is necessary for the effective survival of an individual. 'Memory' can be defined in various ways but in an overall view, memory is the retention of the information that the brain grasps. Different factors are responsible for the disbalance in the brain's hippocampus region and the acetylcholine level, which masters the memory and cognitive functions. Plants are a source of pharmacologically potent drug molecules of high efficacy. Recently herbal medicine has evolved rapidly, gaining great acceptance worldwide due to their natural origin and fewer side effects. In this review, the authors have discussed the mechanisms and pharmacological action of herbal bioactive compounds to boost memory. Moreover, this review presents an update of different herbs and natural products that could act as memory enhancers and how they can be potentially utilized in the near future for the treatment of severe brain disorders. In addition, the authors also discuss the differences in biological activity of the same herb and emphasize the requirement for a higher standardization in cultivation methods and plant processing. The demand for further studies evaluating the interactions of herbal drugs is mentioned.

The Mixture of Gotu Kola, Cnidium Fruit, and Goji Berry Enhances Memory Functions by Inducing Nerve-Growth-Factor-Mediated Actions Both In Vitro and In Vivo

Nerve growth factor (NGF), a typical neurotrophin, has been characterized by the regulation of neuronal cell differentiation and survival involved in learning and memory functions. NGF has a main role in neurite extension and synapse formation by activating the cyclic adenosine monophosphate-response-element-binding protein (CREB) in the hippocampus. The purpose of this study was to determine whether a mixture of Gotu Kola, Cnidium fruit, and Goji berry (KYJ) enhances memory function by inducing NGF-mediated actions both in vitro and in vivo. The KYJ combination increased NGF concentration and neurite length in C6 glioma and N2a neuronal cells, respectively. Additionally, we discovered memory-enhancing effects of KYJ through increased NGF-mediated synapse maturation, CREB phosphorylation, and cell differentiation in the mouse hippocampus. These findings suggest that this combination may be a potential nootropic cognitive enhancer via the induction of NGF and NGF-dependent activities.

Antiamnesic effects of tofisopam against scopolamine-induced cognitive impairments in rats

In this study, we investigated the potential therapeutic effects of tofisopam, a 2,3-benzodiazepine derivative anxiolytic, on cognitive deficits in rats with scopolamine-induced amnesia. Cognitive performance of the rats was investigated by using the Morris water maze and passive avoidance tests. Changes in motor activity were assessed by using the activity cage and Rota-rod tests and then morphological changes in the hippocampus were assessed via immunohistochemical stainings. The results indicated that scopolamine impaired learning and memory parameters in rats. Worsened cognitive performance, neuronal loss, and decreased hippocampal synaptophysin, Ki-67, and glial fibrillary acidic protein density were observed. Tofisopam administration at a dose of 50 mg/kg for seven days improved the impaired cognitive performance, enhanced the attenuated synaptic transmission in the hippocampus, increased proliferation in subgranular zones, and improved the decrease in astrocytes in amnesic rats. These findings point out the anti-amnesic effects of tofisopam with concomitant improvements in the hippocampal synaptogenesis, neurogenesis, and glial plasticity, for the first time. Presented beneficial effects of tofisopam on cognitive dysfunctions may have a notable clinical value considering the fact that one of the most important side effects of 1,4-benzodiazepines, which are classical anxiolytic drugs, is amnesia. However, these preclinical results need to be confirmed with further clinical studies, first.

Optimized-SopungSunkiwon, a Herbal Formula, Attenuates Aβ Oligomer-Induced Neurotoxicity in Alzheimer's Disease Models

Alzheimer's disease (AD), the most common form of dementia, is an age-related neurodegenerative disease that is characterized by memory dysfunction, neuronal cell damage, and neuroinflammation. It is believed that AD-related pathology is mostly due to the overproduction of Aβ, especially the oligomeric form (AβO), in the brain. Evidence of the effects of multifunctional medicinal herbs in the treatment of AD has been steadily increasing. Optimized-SopungSunkiwon (OSS), a multiherbal formulation that is composed of six medicinal herbs derived from SopungSunkiwon, is a traditional medicine that is prescribed for neurodegenerative disorders in elderly patients. We previously reported that OSS showed an antiamnesic and memory enhancing effect in mice, but it is unknown whether OSS has a protective effect against AβO neurotoxicity. In this study, we investigated the effects of OSS in AD models induced by AβO in vitro and in vivo. We found that OSS protected neuronal cells and inhibited the generation of nitric oxide and reactive oxygen species against AβO toxicity in vitro. These results were confirmed by in vivo data that oral administration of OSS for 14 days attenuated memory impairments and neuronal cell death by modulating gliosis, glutathione depletion, and synaptic damage in the mouse hippocampus induced by AβO.

Traditional Korean East Asian medicines and herbal formulations for cognitive impairment

Hanbang, the Traditional Korean Medicine (TKM), is an inseparable component of Korean culture both within the country, and further afield. Korean traditional herbs have been used medicinally to treat sickness and injury for thousands of years. Oriental medicine reflects our ancestor’s wisdom and experience, and as the elderly population in Korea is rapidly increasing, so is the importance of their health problems. The proportion of the population who are over 65 years of age is expected to increase to 24.3% by 2031. Cognitive impairment is common with increasing age, and efforts are made to retain and restore the cognition ability of the elderly. Herbal materials have been considered for this purpose because of their low adverse effects and their cognitive-enhancing or anti-dementia activities. Herbal materials are reported to contain several active compounds that have effects on cognitive function. Here, we enumerate evidence linking TKMs which have shown benefits in memory improvements. Moreover, we have also listed Korean herbal formulations which have been the subject of scientific reports relating to memory improvement.

Fructus Gardenia (Gardenia jasminoides J. Ellis) phytochemistry, pharmacology of cardiovascular, and safety with the perspective of new drugs development

The phytochemistry, cardiovascular pharmacology, toxicology, side effect, and further development prospects of Gardenia jasminoides J. Ellis (GJE) and its main constituents crocins and iridoid glycosides were studied. Numerous studies have confirmed that crocins and iridoid glycosides had effects of antioxidation, anti-inflammatory, anti-atherosclerosis, anti-ischemic brain injuries, anti-platelet aggregation, anti-hyperglycemia, anti-hyperlipidemia, anti-hypertension, and so on. Some of them might be related to several attractive pharmacodynamic actions of GJE such as promoting endothelium growth, protecting neurons, and inducing their differentiation. Both of them make it possible for GJE to prevent and cure thromboembolism and cardiovascular diseases well. From our own basic pharmacological research of GJE extract on several rat models, it has been known that GJE extract markedly prolonged bleeding time and inhibited platelet aggregation and thrombosis. It has significant proliferation effect on both endothelial cells and endothelial progenitor cells as well. As the mechanisms of GJE on those diseases were discussed and summarized, questions about its genetoxicity and hepatotoxicity were also discussed during its safety study to make the foundation for long-term medication and clinical research in the near future.

Memory-enhancing effect of Mori Fructus via induction of nerve growth factor

Fruits rich in phytochemicals have been shown to improve memory by protecting or enhancing neuronal functions mediated by neurotrophic factors, such as nerve growth factor (NGF), in the hippocampus. Mori Fructus (Morus alba L., Moraceae), also called mulberry, is used as a food, dietary supplement and an anti-ageing agent in traditional Oriental medicine. It is also known to contain abundant flavonoid compounds and to exhibit various pharmacological effects. The present study was performed to evaluate the memory-enhancing effect of Mori Fructus extract (ME) in mice, with a focus on NGF regulation. ME (20, 100 and 500 mg/kg per d for 7 d, per os) dose-dependently promoted NGF release in the mouse hippocampus, leading to phosphorylation of extracellular signal-regulated kinases and cyclic AMP response element-binding protein. ME significantly increased pre- and post-synapse formation, acetylcholine synthesisation, neuronal cell differentiation, neurite outgrowth and neuronal cell proliferation in the mouse hippocampus. Furthermore, ME significantly increased latency time in the passive avoidance task (P< 0·001) and recognition time of novel objects in the object recognition test (P< 0·05), indicating improvements in learning and memory. Taken together, these data suggest that ME exhibits a memory-enhancing effect via up-regulation of NGF.