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Kratimenos P, Vij A, Vidva R, Koutroulis I, Delivoria-Papadopoulos M, Gallo V, Sathyanesan A. Computational analysis of cortical neuronal excitotoxicity in a large animal model of neonatal brain injury. J Neurodev Disord 2022; 14:26. [PMID: 35351004 PMCID: PMC8966144 DOI: 10.1186/s11689-022-09431-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2021] [Accepted: 02/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Neonatal hypoxic brain injury is a major cause of intellectual and developmental disability. Hypoxia causes neuronal dysfunction and death in the developing cerebral cortex due to excitotoxic Ca2+-influx. In the translational piglet model of hypoxic encephalopathy, we have previously shown that hypoxia overactivates Ca2+/Calmodulin (CaM) signaling via Sarcoma (Src) kinase in cortical neurons, resulting in overexpression of proapoptotic genes. However, identifying the exact relationship between alterations in neuronal Ca2+-influx, molecular determinants of cell death, and the degree of hypoxia in a dynamic system represents a significant challenge. METHODS We used experimental and computational methods to identify molecular events critical to the onset of excitotoxicity-induced apoptosis in the cerebral cortex of newborn piglets. We used 2-3-day-old piglets (normoxic [Nx], hypoxic [Hx], and hypoxic + Src-inhibitor-treatment [Hx+PP2] groups) for biochemical analysis of ATP production, Ca2+-influx, and Ca2+/CaM-dependent protein kinase kinase 2 (CaMKK2) expression. We then used SimBiology to build a computational model of the Ca2+/CaM-Src-kinase signaling cascade, simulating Nx, Hx, and Hx+PP2 conditions. To evaluate our model, we used Sobol variance decomposition, multiparametric global sensitivity analysis, and parameter scanning. RESULTS Our model captures important molecular trends caused by hypoxia in the piglet brain. Incorporating the action of Src kinase inhibitor PP2 further validated our model and enabled predictive analysis of the effect of hypoxia on CaMKK2. We determined the impact of a feedback loop related to Src phosphorylation of NMDA receptors and activation kinetics of CaMKII. We also identified distinct modes of signaling wherein Ca2+ level alterations following Src kinase inhibition may not be a linear predictor of changes in Bax expression. Importantly, our model indicates that while pharmacological pre-treatment significantly reduces the onset of abnormal Ca2+-influx, there exists a window of intervention after hypoxia during which targeted modulation of Src-NMDAR interaction kinetics in combination with PP2 administration can reduce Ca2+-influx and Bax expression to similar levels as pre-treatment. CONCLUSIONS Our model identifies new dynamics of critical components in the Ca2+/CaM-Src signaling pathway leading to neuronal injury and provides a feasible framework for drug efficacy studies in translational models of neonatal brain injury for the prevention of intellectual and developmental disabilities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Panagiotis Kratimenos
- Center for Neuroscience Research, Children's National Research Institute, Children's National Hospital, 111 Michigan Avenue, Washington, DC, 20010, USA. .,Department of Pediatrics, Division of Neonatology, Children's National Hospital, Washington DC, USA. .,George Washington University School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Washington DC, USA.
| | - Abhya Vij
- George Washington University School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Washington DC, USA
| | | | - Ioannis Koutroulis
- George Washington University School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Washington DC, USA.,Department of Pediatrics, Division of Emergency Medicine, Children's National Hospital, Washington, DC, USA.,Center for Genetic Medicine Research, Children's National Research Institute and Department of Genomics and Precision Medicine, George Washington University School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Washington, DC, USA
| | | | - Vittorio Gallo
- Center for Neuroscience Research, Children's National Research Institute, Children's National Hospital, 111 Michigan Avenue, Washington, DC, 20010, USA.,George Washington University School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Washington DC, USA
| | - Aaron Sathyanesan
- Center for Neuroscience Research, Children's National Research Institute, Children's National Hospital, 111 Michigan Avenue, Washington, DC, 20010, USA. .,George Washington University School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Washington DC, USA.
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Kratimenos P, Goldstein EZ, Koutroulis I, Knoblach S, Jablonska B, Banerjee P, Malaeb SN, Bhattacharya S, Almira-Suarez MI, Gallo V, Delivoria-Papadopoulos M. Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor Inhibition Reverses Cellular and Transcriptomic Alterations Induced by Hypoxia in the Neonatal Piglet Brain. iScience 2020; 23:101766. [PMID: 33294779 PMCID: PMC7683340 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2020.101766] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2020] [Revised: 10/12/2020] [Accepted: 10/30/2020] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Acute hypoxia (HX) causes extensive cellular damage in the developing human cerebral cortex. We found increased expression of activated-EGFR in affected cortical areas of neonates with HX and investigated its functional role in the piglet, which displays a highly evolved, gyrencephalic brain, with a human-like maturation pattern. In the piglet, HX-induced activation of EGFR and Ca2+/calmodulin kinase IV (CaMKIV) caused cell death and pathological alterations in neurons and glia. EGFR blockade inhibited CaMKIV activation, attenuated neuronal loss, increased oligodendrocyte proliferation, and reversed HX-induced astrogliosis. We performed for the first time high-throughput transcriptomic analysis of the piglet cortex to define molecular responses to HX and to uncover genes specifically involved in EGFR signaling in piglet and human brain injury. Our results indicate that specific molecular responses modulated by EGFR may be targeted as a therapeutic strategy for HX injury in the neonatal brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Panagiotis Kratimenos
- Center for Neuroscience Research, Children's National Research Institute, Children's National Hospital, George Washington University School of Medicine and Health Sciences, 111 Michigan Avenue, NW, Washington, DC 20010 P 202-476-5922, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Neonatology, Children's National Hospital and George Washington University School of Medicine and Health Sciences, 111 Michigan Avenue, NW, Washington, DC 20010 P 202-602-4889, USA
- Corresponding author
| | - Evan Z. Goldstein
- Center for Neuroscience Research, Children's National Research Institute, Children's National Hospital, George Washington University School of Medicine and Health Sciences, 111 Michigan Avenue, NW, Washington, DC 20010 P 202-476-5922, USA
| | - Ioannis Koutroulis
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Emergency Medicine, Children's National Hospital and George Washington University School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Washington, DC, USA
- Research Center for Genetic Medicine, Children's National Research Institute, Washington, DC, USA
- Department of Genomics and Precision Medicine, George Washington University School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Susan Knoblach
- Research Center for Genetic Medicine, Children's National Research Institute, Washington, DC, USA
- Department of Genomics and Precision Medicine, George Washington University School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Beata Jablonska
- Center for Neuroscience Research, Children's National Research Institute, Children's National Hospital, George Washington University School of Medicine and Health Sciences, 111 Michigan Avenue, NW, Washington, DC 20010 P 202-476-5922, USA
| | - Payal Banerjee
- Research Center for Genetic Medicine, Children's National Research Institute, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Shadi N. Malaeb
- Department of Pediatrics, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Surajit Bhattacharya
- Research Center for Genetic Medicine, Children's National Research Institute, Washington, DC, USA
| | - M. Isabel Almira-Suarez
- Department of Pathology, Children's National Hospital and George Washington University School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Vittorio Gallo
- Center for Neuroscience Research, Children's National Research Institute, Children's National Hospital, George Washington University School of Medicine and Health Sciences, 111 Michigan Avenue, NW, Washington, DC 20010 P 202-476-5922, USA
- Corresponding author
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Montaldo P, Cunnington A, Oliveira V, Swamy R, Bandya P, Pant S, Lally PJ, Ivain P, Mendoza J, Atreja G, Padmesh V, Baburaj M, Sebastian M, Yasashwi I, Kamalarathnam C, Chandramohan R, Mangalabharathi S, Kumaraswami K, Kumar S, Benakappa N, Manerkar S, Mondhkar J, Prakash V, Sajjid M, Seeralar A, Jahan I, Moni SC, Shahidullah M, Sujatha R, Chandrasekaran M, Ramji S, Shankaran S, Kaforou M, Herberg J, Thayyil S. Transcriptomic profile of adverse neurodevelopmental outcomes after neonatal encephalopathy. Sci Rep 2020; 10:13100. [PMID: 32753750 PMCID: PMC7403382 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-70131-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2019] [Accepted: 06/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
A rapid and early diagnostic test to identify the encephalopathic babies at risk of adverse outcome may accelerate the development of neuroprotectants. We examined if a whole blood transcriptomic signature measured soon after birth, predicts adverse neurodevelopmental outcome eighteen months after neonatal encephalopathy. We performed next generation sequencing on whole blood ribonucleic acid obtained within six hours of birth from the first 47 encephalopathic babies recruited to the Hypothermia for Encephalopathy in Low and middle-income countries (HELIX) trial. Two infants with blood culture positive sepsis were excluded, and the data from remaining 45 were analysed. A total of 855 genes were significantly differentially expressed between the good and adverse outcome groups, of which RGS1 and SMC4 were the most significant. Biological pathway analysis adjusted for gender, trial randomisation allocation (cooling therapy versus usual care) and estimated blood leukocyte proportions revealed over-representation of genes from pathways related to melatonin and polo-like kinase in babies with adverse outcome. These preliminary data suggest that transcriptomic profiling may be a promising tool for rapid risk stratification in neonatal encephalopathy. It may provide insights into biological mechanisms and identify novel therapeutic targets for neuroprotection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paolo Montaldo
- Department of Brain Sciences, Centre for Perinatal Neuroscience, Imperial College London, London, UK. .,Neonatal Unit, Università Degli Studi Della Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli", Naples, Italy.
| | - Aubrey Cunnington
- Paediatric Infectious Diseases, Department of Infectious Diseases, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Vania Oliveira
- Department of Brain Sciences, Centre for Perinatal Neuroscience, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Ravi Swamy
- Department of Brain Sciences, Centre for Perinatal Neuroscience, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Prathik Bandya
- Neonatal Medicine, Indira Gandhi Institute of Child Health, Bangalore, Karnataka, India
| | - Stuti Pant
- Department of Brain Sciences, Centre for Perinatal Neuroscience, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Peter J Lally
- Department of Brain Sciences, Centre for Perinatal Neuroscience, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Phoebe Ivain
- Department of Brain Sciences, Centre for Perinatal Neuroscience, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Josephine Mendoza
- Department of Brain Sciences, Centre for Perinatal Neuroscience, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Gaurav Atreja
- Department of Brain Sciences, Centre for Perinatal Neuroscience, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Vadakepat Padmesh
- Neonatal Medicine, Institute of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Madras Medical College, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Mythili Baburaj
- Neonatal Medicine, Institute of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Madras Medical College, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Monica Sebastian
- Neonatal Medicine, Institute of Child Health, Madras Medical College, Tamil Nadu, Chennai, India
| | - Indiramma Yasashwi
- Neonatal Medicine, Indira Gandhi Institute of Child Health, Bangalore, Karnataka, India
| | - Chinnathambi Kamalarathnam
- Neonatal Medicine, Institute of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Madras Medical College, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Rema Chandramohan
- Neonatal Medicine, Institute of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Madras Medical College, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Sundaram Mangalabharathi
- Neonatal Medicine, Institute of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Madras Medical College, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Kumutha Kumaraswami
- Neonatal Medicine, Institute of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Madras Medical College, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Shobha Kumar
- Neonatal Medicine, Institute of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Madras Medical College, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Naveen Benakappa
- Neonatal Medicine, Indira Gandhi Institute of Child Health, Bangalore, Karnataka, India
| | | | | | - Vinayagam Prakash
- Neonatal Medicine, Institute of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Madras Medical College, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Mohammed Sajjid
- Neonatal Medicine, Institute of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Madras Medical College, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Arasar Seeralar
- Neonatal Medicine, Institute of Child Health, Madras Medical College, Tamil Nadu, Chennai, India
| | - Ismat Jahan
- Neonatal Medicine, Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujib Medical University, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | | | - Mohammod Shahidullah
- Neonatal Medicine, Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujib Medical University, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Radhika Sujatha
- Neonatal Medicine, Government Medical College, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India
| | - Manigandan Chandrasekaran
- Department of Brain Sciences, Centre for Perinatal Neuroscience, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Siddarth Ramji
- Neonatal Medicine, Maulana Azad Medical College, New Delhi, Delhi, India
| | - Seetha Shankaran
- Neonatal-Perinatal Medicine, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, USA
| | - Myrsini Kaforou
- Paediatric Infectious Diseases, Department of Infectious Diseases, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Jethro Herberg
- Paediatric Infectious Diseases, Department of Infectious Diseases, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Sudhin Thayyil
- Department of Brain Sciences, Centre for Perinatal Neuroscience, Imperial College London, London, UK
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The multifunctional role of phospho-calmodulin in pathophysiological processes. Biochem J 2018; 475:4011-4023. [PMID: 30578290 PMCID: PMC6305829 DOI: 10.1042/bcj20180755] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2018] [Revised: 11/23/2018] [Accepted: 11/30/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Calmodulin (CaM) is a versatile Ca2+-sensor/transducer protein that modulates hundreds of enzymes, channels, transport systems, transcription factors, adaptors and other structural proteins, controlling in this manner multiple cellular functions. In addition to its capacity to regulate target proteins in a Ca2+-dependent and Ca2+-independent manner, the posttranslational phosphorylation of CaM by diverse Ser/Thr- and Tyr-protein kinases has been recognized as an important additional manner to regulate this protein by fine-tuning its functionality. In this review, we shall cover developments done in recent years in which phospho-CaM has been implicated in signalling pathways that are relevant for the onset and progression of diverse pathophysiological processes. These include diverse systems playing a major role in carcinogenesis and tumour development, prion-induced encephalopathies and brain hypoxia, melatonin-regulated neuroendocrine disorders, hypertension, and heavy metal-induced cell toxicity.
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Kratimenos P, Koutroulis I, Jain A, Malaeb S, Delivoria-Papadopoulos M. Effect of Concurrent Src Kinase Inhibition with Short-Duration Hypothermia on Ca2+/Calmodulin Kinase IV Activity and Neuropathology after Hypoxia-Ischemia in the Newborn Swine Brain. Neonatology 2018; 113:37-43. [PMID: 29024930 PMCID: PMC5729087 DOI: 10.1159/000480067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2017] [Accepted: 08/08/2017] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Hypoxia-ischemia (HI) results in increased activation of Ca2+/calmodulin kinase IV (CaM kinase IV) mediated by Src kinase. Therapeutic hypothermia ameliorates neuronal injury in the newborn. HYPOTHESIS Inhibition of Src kinase concurrently with hypothermia further attenuates the hypoxia-induced increased activation of CaM kinase IV compared with hypothermia alone. DESIGN/METHODS Ventilated piglets were exposed to HI, received saline or a selective Src kinase inhibitor (PP2), and were cooled to 33°C. Neuropathology, adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and phosphocreatine (PCr) concentrations, and CaM kinase IV activity were determined. RESULTS The neuropathology mean score (mean ± SD) was 0.4 ± 0.43 in normoxia-normothermia (p < 0.05 vs. hypoxia-normothermia), 3.5 ± 0.89 in hypoxia-normothermia (p < 0.05 vs. normoxia-normothermia), 0.7 ± 0.73 in hypoxia-hypothermia (p < 0.05 vs. normoxia-normothermia), and 0.5 ± 0.70 in normoxia-hypothermia (p < 0.05 vs. hypoxia-normothermia). The CaM kinase IV activity in cerebral tissue (pmol Pi/mg protein/min; mean ± SD) was 2,002 ± 729 in normoxia-normothermia, 1,704 ± 18 in normoxia-hypothermia, 6,017 ± 2,510 in hypoxia-normothermia, 4,104 ± 542 in hypoxia-hypothermia (p < 0.05 vs. normoxia-hypothermia), and 2,165 ± 415 in hypoxia-hypothermia with PP2 (p < 0.05 vs. hypoxia-hypothermia). The hypoxic groups with and without hypothermia or Src kinase inhibitor were comparable in the levels of ATP and PCr, indicating that they were similar in their degree of energy failure prior to treatments. Hypothermia or Src kinase inhibitor (PP2) did not restore the ATP and PCr levels. CONCLUSIONS Hypothermia and Src kinase inhibition attenuated apoptotic cell death and improved neuropathology after hypoxia. The combination of short-duration hypothermia with Src kinase inhibition following hypoxia further attenuates the increased activation of CaM kinase IV compared to hypothermia alone in the newborn swine brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Panagiotis Kratimenos
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Neonatal-Perinatal Medicine, Children's National Medical Center, School of Medicine and Health Sciences, George Washington University, Washington, DC, USA
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Kratimenos P, Koutroulis I, Agarwal B, Theocharis S, Delivoria-Papadopoulos M. Effect of Src Kinase inhibition on Cytochrome c, Smac/DIABLO and Apoptosis Inducing Factor (AIF) Following Cerebral Hypoxia-Ischemia in Newborn Piglets. Sci Rep 2017; 7:16664. [PMID: 29192254 PMCID: PMC5709433 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-16983-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2017] [Accepted: 11/21/2017] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
We have previously shown that cerebral Hypoxia-ischemia (HI) results in activation of Src kinase in the newborn piglet brain. We investigated the regulatory mechanism by which the pre-apoptotic proteins translocate from mitochondria to the cytosol during HI through the Src kinase. Newborn piglets were divided into 3 groups (n = 5/group): normoxic (Nx), HI and HI pre-treated with Src kinase inhibitor PP2 (PP2 + HI). Brain tissue HI was verified by neuropathological analysis and by Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) and Phosphocreatine (PCr) levels. We used western blots, immunohistochemistry, H&E and biochemical enzyme assays to determine the role of Src kinase on mitochondrial membrane apoptotic protein trafficking. HI resulted in decreased ATP and PCr levels, neuropathological changes and increased levels of cytochrome c, Smac/DIABLO and AIF in the cytosol while their levels were decreased in mitochondria compared to Nx. PP2 decreased the cytosolic levels of pre-apoptotic proteins, attenuated the neuropathological changes and apoptosis and decreased the HI-induced increased activity of caspase-3. Our data suggest that Src kinase may represent a potential target that could interrupt the enzymatic activation of the caspase dependent cell death pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Panagiotis Kratimenos
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Neonatology, Children's National Medical Center, The George Washington University, School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Washington, DC, USA. .,Department of Pediatrics, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA.
| | - Ioannis Koutroulis
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Emergency Medicine, Children's National Medical Center, The George Washington University, School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Beamon Agarwal
- Department of Hematopathology, Montefiore Medical Center, Bronx, NY, USA
| | - Stamatios Theocharis
- First Department of Pathology, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, School of Medicine, Athens, Greece
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Freitas AE, Machado DG, Budni J, Neis VB, Balen GO, Lopes MW, de Souza LF, Dafre AL, Leal RB, Rodrigues ALS. Fluoxetine modulates hippocampal cell signaling pathways implicated in neuroplasticity in olfactory bulbectomized mice. Behav Brain Res 2012; 237:176-84. [PMID: 23018126 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2012.09.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2011] [Revised: 09/11/2012] [Accepted: 09/17/2012] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The olfactory bulbectomy (OB) animal model of depression is a well-established model that is capable of detecting antidepressant activity following chronic drug therapy, and the surgery results in behavioral and biochemical changes that are reminiscent of various symptoms of depression. In the present study, we investigated the degree to which 14 days of p.o. administration of the classic antidepressant fluoxetine (10mg/kg) were able to reverse OB-induced changes in behavior (namely, hyperactivity in the open-field test and reduced motivational and self-care behaviors in the splash test) and in the activation of hippocampal cell signaling pathways that are thought to be involved in synaptic plasticity. OB caused significant increases in ERK1 and CREB (Ser(133)) phosphorylation and in the expression of BDNF immunocontent, all of which were prevented by fluoxetine administration. Moreover, fluoxetine administration also caused a significant decrease in ERK2 phosphorylation in mice that had undergone OB. Neither Akt nor GSK-3β phosphorylation was altered in any experimental condition. In conclusion, the present study shows that OB can induce significant behavioral changes that are accompanied by the activation of hippocampal signaling pathways, namely the ERK1/CREB/BDNF pathway, which is involved in the synaptic plasticity. Conversely, fluoxetine prevented these OB-induced behavioral changes and avoided the activation of ERK1/CREB/BDNF in the hippocampus. Taken together, our results extend the data from the existing literature regarding OB-induced behavioral and neurochemical changes, and suggest a possible underlying mechanism that can account for the antidepressant effect of fluoxetine in this model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andiara E Freitas
- Department of Biochemistry, Center of Biological Sciences, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Campus Universitário, Trindade 88040-900, Florianópolis, SC, Brazil
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