Gamma-Diketone central neuropathy: quantitative analyses of cytoskeletal components in myelinated axons of the rat rubrospinal tract

Bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells protect against n-hexane-induced neuropathy through beclin 1-independent inhibition of autophagy

Chronic exposure to n-hexane, a widely used organic solvent in industry, induces central-peripheral neuropathy, which is mediated by its active metabolite, 2,5-hexanedione (HD). We recently reported that transplantation of bone marrow-mesenchymal stem cells (BMSC) significantly ameliorated HD-induced neuronal damage and motor deficits in rats. However, the mechanisms remain unclear. Here, we reported that inhibition of HD-induced autophagy contributed to BMSC-afforded protection. BMSC transplantation significantly reduced the levels of microtubule-associated protein 1 light chain 3-II (LC3-II) and the degradation of sequestosome-1 (p62) in the spinal cord and sciatic nerve of HD-intoxicated rats. Downregulation of autophagy by BMSC was also confirmed in VSC4.1 cells exposed to HD. Moreover, inhibition of autophagy by PIK III mitigated the neurotoxic effects of HD and, meanwhile, abolished BMSC-afforded neuroprotection. Furthermore, we found that BMSC failed to interfere with Beclin 1, but promoted activation of mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR). Unc-like kinse 1 (ULK1) was further recognized as the downstream target of mTOR responsible for BMSC-mediated inhibition of autophagy. Altogether, BMSC transplantation potently ameliorated HD-induced autophagy through beclin 1-independent activation of mTOR pathway, providing a novel insight for the therapeutic effects of BMSC against n-hexane and other environmental toxicants-induced neurotoxicity.

Toxic neuropathies: Mechanistic insights based on a chemical perspective

2,5-Hexanedione (HD) and acrylamide (ACR) are considered to be prototypical among chemical toxicants that cause central-peripheral axonopathies characterized by distal axon swelling and degeneration. Because the demise of distal regions was assumed to be causally related to the onset of neurotoxicity, substantial effort was devoted to deciphering the respective mechanisms. Continued research, however, revealed that expression of the presumed hallmark morphological features was dependent upon the daily rate of toxicant exposure. Indeed, many studies reported that the corresponding axonopathic changes were late developing effects that occurred independent of behavioral and/or functional neurotoxicity. This suggested that the toxic axonopathy classification might be based on epiphenomena related to dose-rate. Therefore, the goal of this mini-review is to discuss how quantitative morphometric analyses and the establishment of dose-dependent relationships helped distinguish primary, mechanistically relevant toxicant effects from non-specific consequences. Perhaps more importantly, we will discuss how knowledge of neurotoxicant chemical nature can guide molecular-level research toward a better, more rational understanding of mechanism. Our discussion will focus on HD, the neurotoxic γ-diketone metabolite of the industrial solvents n-hexane and methyl-n-butyl ketone. Early investigations suggested that HD caused giant neurofilamentous axonal swellings and eventual degeneration in CNS and PNS. However, as our review will point out, this interpretation underwent several iterations as the understanding of γ-diketone chemistry improved and more quantitative experimental approaches were implemented. The chemical concepts and design strategies discussed in this mini-review are broadly applicable to the mechanistic studies of other chemicals (e.g., n-propyl bromine, methyl methacrylate) that cause toxic neuropathies.

Decelerated transport and its mechanism of 2,5-hexanedione on middle-molecular-weight neurofilament in rat dorsal root ganglia cells

Chronic exposure to n-hexane induces peripheral-central axonopathy, mediated by its metabolite 2,5-hexanedione (2,5-HD), in occupational workers and experimental animals, but the underlying mechanism is still unclear. In the current study, we investigated the effects of 2,5-HD on middle-molecular-weight neurofilament (NF-M) axonal transport using live-cell imaging technique in cultured rat dorsal root ganglia (DRG) cells. PA-GFP-NF-M plasmid was transfected into DRG neurons and live-cell imaging was performed to observe the slow axonal transport of NF-M. The levels of cytoskeleton and motor proteins in DRG cells were detected by Western-blot and the concentration of ATP was determined using an ATP Assay Kit. The results showed that 2,5-HD administration resulted in a decrease of NF-M axonal transport and a reduction of three neurofilament subunits levels in DRG cells. Furthermore, 2,5-HD exposure significantly decreased ATP contents and the protein levels of kinesin heavy chain (KHC). These findings indicated that 2,5-HD reduced slow axonal transport, neurofilaments cargoes, motor proteins and ATP energy in rat DRG cells, which may contribute to 2,5-HD-induced neurotoxicity.

Metabolomics and mass isotopomer analysis as a strategy for pathway discovery: pyrrolyl and cyclopentenyl derivatives of the pro-drug of abuse, levulinate

We recently reported that levulinate (4-ketopentanoate) is converted in the liver to 4-hydroxypentanoate, a drug of abuse, and that the formation of 4-hydroxypentanoate is stimulated by ethanol oxidation. We also identified 3 parallel β-oxidation pathways by which levulinate and 4-hydroxypentanoate are catabolized to propionyl-CoA and acetyl-CoA. We now report that levulinate forms three seven-carbon cyclical CoA esters by processes starting with the elongation of levulinyl-CoA by acetyl-CoA to 3,6-diketoheptanoyl-CoA. The latter γ-diketo CoA ester undergoes two parallel cyclization processes. One process yields a mixture of tautomers, i.e., cyclopentenyl- and cyclopentadienyl-acyl-CoAs. The second cyclization process yields a methyl-pyrrolyl-acetyl-CoA containing a nitrogen atom derived from the ε-nitrogen of lysine but without carbons from lysine. The cyclic CoA esters were identified in rat livers perfused with levulinate and in livers and brains from rats gavaged with calcium levulinate ± ethanol. Lastly, 3,6-diketoheptanoyl-CoA, like 2,5-diketohexane, pyrrolates free lysine and, presumably, lysine residues from proteins. This may represent a new pathway for protein pyrrolation. The cyclic CoA esters and related pyrrolation processes may play a role in the toxic effects of 4-hydroxypentanoate.

A critical reevaluation of the stationary axonal cytoskeleton hypothesis

Neurofilaments are transported along axons in a rapid intermittent and bidirectional manner but there is a long-standing controversy about whether this applies to all axonal neurofilaments. Some have proposed that only a small proportion of axonal neurofilaments are mobile and that most are deposited into a persistently stationary and extensively cross-linked cytoskeleton that remains fixed in place for many months without movement, turning over very slowly. In contrast, others have proposed that this hypothesis is based on a misinterpretation of the experimental data and that, in fact, all axonal neurofilaments move. These contrary perspectives have distinct implications for our understanding of how neurofilaments are organized and reorganized in axons both in health and disease. Here, we discuss the history and substance of this controversy. We show that the published data on the kinetics and distribution of neurofilaments along axons favor a simple "stop and go" transport model in which axons contain a single population of neurofilaments that all move in a stochastic, bidirectional and intermittent manner. Based on these considerations, we propose a dynamic view of the neuronal cytoskeleton in which all neurofilaments cycle repeatedly between moving and pausing states throughout their journey along the axon. The filaments move infrequently, but the average pause duration is on the order of hours rather than weeks or months. Against this fluid backdrop, the action of molecular motors on neurofilaments can have dramatic effects on neurofilament organization that would not be possible if the neurofilaments were extensively cross-linked into a truly stationary network.

Organic solvent metabolite, 1,2-diacetylbenzene, impairs neural progenitor cells and hippocampal neurogenesis

1,2-Diacetylbenzene (DAB) is a neurotoxic minor metabolite of 1,2-diethylbenzene or naphthalene reaction product with OH radical. DAB causes central and peripheral neuropathies that lead to motor neuronal deficits. However, the potent effects and molecular mechanisms of DAB on neural progenitor cells and hippocampus are unknown. In the current study, we report the DAB damage at lower doses (less than 50 μM) to neural progenitor cell (NPC) invitro and hippocampal neurogenesis invivo. DAB significantly suppressed NPC proliferation with increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) production in a dose-dependent manner. The suppression of NPC proliferation was effectively blunted by the action of an antioxidant, N-acetyl cysteine. Six-week-old male C57BL/6 mice were treated with 1 or 5 mg/kg DAB for 2 weeks. DAB significantly suppressed NPC proliferation in the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus, indicating impaired hippocampal neurogenesis. Increased ROS production and the formation of oxidative stress-associated dinitrophenyl adducts were detected in the hippocampal homogenates of DAB-treated mice. DAB activated Mac-1-positive immune cells which are involved in inflammatory process in the hippocampus. Taken together, these results confirm that oxidative stress by DAB might be cause of adverse effects in NPC proliferation and hippocampal neurogenesis.

Gamma-diketone axonopathy: analyses of cytoskeletal motors and highways in CNS myelinated axons

2,5-Hexanedione (HD) intoxication is associated with axon atrophy that might be responsible for the characteristic gait abnormalities, hindlimb skeletal muscle weakness and other neurological deficits that accompany neurotoxicity. Although previous mechanistic research focused on neurofilament triplet proteins (NFL, NFM, NFH), other cytoskeletal targets are possible. Therefore, to identify potential non-NF protein targets, we characterized the effects of HD on protein-protein interactions in cosedimentation assays using microtubules and NFs prepared from spinal cord of rats intoxicated at different daily dose rates (175 and 400 mg/kg/day). Results indicate that HD did not alter the presence of alpha- or beta-tubulins in these preparations, nor were changes noted in the distribution of either anterograde (KIF1A, KIF3, KIF5) or retrograde (dynein) molecular motors. The cosedimentation of dynactin, a dynein-associated protein, also was not affected. Immunoblot analysis of microtubule-associated proteins (MAPs) in microtubule preparations revealed substantial reductions (45-80%) in MAP1A, MAP1B heavy chain, MAP2, and tau regardless of HD dose rate. MAP1B light chain content was not altered. Finally, HD intoxication did not influence native NF protein content in either preparation. As per previous research, microtubule and NF preparations were enriched in high-molecular weight NF species. However, these NF derivatives were common to both HD and control samples, suggesting a lack of pathognomonic relevance. These data indicate that, although motor proteins were not affected, HD selectively impaired MAP-microtubule binding, presumably through adduction of lysine residues that mediate such interactions. Given their critical role in cytoskeletal physiology, MAPs could represent a relevant target for the induction of gamma-diketone axonopathy.

Diphenyl ditelluride- and methylmercury-induced hyperphosphorilation of the high molecular weight neurofilament subunit is prevented by organoselenium compounds in cerebral cortex of young rats

Organotellurides are important intermediates in organic synthesis and, consequently, the occupational exposure to them is a constant risk for laboratory workers. These compounds can elicit many neurotoxic events in the central nervous system (CNS) that are associated with several neurological symptoms. In contrast, organoselenium compounds are considered to exert neuroprotective actions on such effects. Neurofilaments (NF) are important cytoskeletal proteins and phosphorylation/dephosphorylation of NF is important to stabilize the cytoskeleton. In this work we investigated the potential protective ability of the selenium compounds ebselen and diphenyl diselenide (PhSe)(2) against the effect of diphenyl ditelluride (PhTe)(2) and methylmercury (MeHg) on the total (phosphorylated plus nonphosphorylated) and phosphorylated immunocontent of the high molecular weight neurofilament subunit (NF-H) from slices of cerebral cortex of 17-day-old rats. We observed that 1muM MeHg induced hyperphosphorylation, increasing the total immunocontent of this subunit of the high-salt Triton insoluble NF-H. Otherwise, 15muM (PhTe)(2) induced hyperphosphorylation of the high-salt Triton insoluble NF-H without altering the total immunocontent of this protein into the cytoskeletal fraction. Concerning the selenium compounds, 15muM (PhSe)(2) and 5muM ebselen did not induce alteration per se on the in vitro phosphorylation of NF-H. In addition, (PhSe)(2) and ebselen at these concentrations, presented a protective effect against the action of (PhTe)(2) and MeHg, on the immunoreactivity of NF-H. Considering that hyperphosphorylation of NF-H is associated with neuronal dysfunction it is probable that the effects of (PhTe)(2) and MeHg could be related to the remarkable neurotoxicity of these organocalcogenides. Furthermore the neuroprotective action of selenium compounds against (PhTe)(2) and MeHg effects could be a promising route to be exploited for a possible treatment of calcogenides poisoning.