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Yu J, Chen G, Zhu H, Zhong Y, Yang Z, Jian Z, Xiong X. Metabolic and proteostatic differences in quiescent and active neural stem cells. Neural Regen Res 2024; 19:43-48. [PMID: 37488842 PMCID: PMC10479840 DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.375306] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2022] [Revised: 02/16/2023] [Accepted: 04/17/2023] [Indexed: 07/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Adult neural stem cells are neurogenesis progenitor cells that play an important role in neurogenesis. Therefore, neural regeneration may be a promising target for treatment of many neurological illnesses. The regenerative capacity of adult neural stem cells can be characterized by two states: quiescent and active. Quiescent adult neural stem cells are more stable and guarantee the quantity and quality of the adult neural stem cell pool. Active adult neural stem cells are characterized by rapid proliferation and differentiation into neurons which allow for integration into neural circuits. This review focuses on differences between quiescent and active adult neural stem cells in nutrition metabolism and protein homeostasis. Furthermore, we discuss the physiological significance and underlying advantages of these differences. Due to the limited number of adult neural stem cells studies, we referred to studies of embryonic adult neural stem cells or non-mammalian adult neural stem cells to evaluate specific mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiacheng Yu
- Department of Neurosurgery, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, Hubei Province, China
| | - Gang Chen
- Department of Neurosurgery, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, Hubei Province, China
| | - Hua Zhu
- Department of Neurosurgery, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, Hubei Province, China
| | - Yi Zhong
- Department of Neurosurgery, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, Hubei Province, China
| | - Zhenxing Yang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, Hubei Province, China
| | - Zhihong Jian
- Department of Neurosurgery, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, Hubei Province, China
| | - Xiaoxing Xiong
- Department of Neurosurgery, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, Hubei Province, China
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2
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Jiang M, Jang SE, Zeng L. The Effects of Extrinsic and Intrinsic Factors on Neurogenesis. Cells 2023; 12:cells12091285. [PMID: 37174685 PMCID: PMC10177620 DOI: 10.3390/cells12091285] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2023] [Revised: 04/18/2023] [Accepted: 04/25/2023] [Indexed: 05/15/2023] Open
Abstract
In the mammalian brain, neurogenesis is maintained throughout adulthood primarily in two typical niches, the subgranular zone (SGZ) of the dentate gyrus and the subventricular zone (SVZ) of the lateral ventricles and in other nonclassic neurogenic areas (e.g., the amygdala and striatum). During prenatal and early postnatal development, neural stem cells (NSCs) differentiate into neurons and migrate to appropriate areas such as the olfactory bulb where they integrate into existing neural networks; these phenomena constitute the multistep process of neurogenesis. Alterations in any of these processes impair neurogenesis and may even lead to brain dysfunction, including cognitive impairment and neurodegeneration. Here, we first summarize the main properties of mammalian neurogenic niches to describe the cellular and molecular mechanisms of neurogenesis. Accumulating evidence indicates that neurogenesis plays an integral role in neuronal plasticity in the brain and cognition in the postnatal period. Given that neurogenesis can be highly modulated by a number of extrinsic and intrinsic factors, we discuss the impact of extrinsic (e.g., alcohol) and intrinsic (e.g., hormones) modulators on neurogenesis. Additionally, we provide an overview of the contribution of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection to persistent neurological sequelae such as neurodegeneration, neurogenic defects and accelerated neuronal cell death. Together, our review provides a link between extrinsic/intrinsic factors and neurogenesis and explains the possible mechanisms of abnormal neurogenesis underlying neurological disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mei Jiang
- Department of Human Anatomy, Dongguan Key Laboratory of Stem Cell and Regenerative Tissue Engineering, Dongguan Campus, Guangdong Medical University, Dongguan 523808, China
| | - Se Eun Jang
- Neural Stem Cell Research Lab, Research Department, National Neuroscience Institute, Singapore 308433, Singapore
| | - Li Zeng
- Neural Stem Cell Research Lab, Research Department, National Neuroscience Institute, Singapore 308433, Singapore
- Neuroscience and Behavioral Disorders Program, DUKE-NUS Graduate Medical School, Singapore 169857, Singapore
- Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technology University, Novena Campus, 11 Mandalay Road, Singapore 308232, Singapore
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3
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Zhang ZW, Tu H, Jiang M, Vanan S, Chia SY, Jang SE, Saw WT, Ong ZW, Ma DR, Zhou ZD, Xu J, Guo KH, Yu WP, Ling SC, Margolin RA, Chain DG, Zeng L, Tan EK. The APP intracellular domain promotes LRRK2 expression to enable feed-forward neurodegenerative mechanisms in Parkinson's disease. Sci Signal 2022; 15:eabk3411. [PMID: 35998231 DOI: 10.1126/scisignal.abk3411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
Gain-of-function mutations in the leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) gene are common in familial forms of Parkinson's disease (PD), which is characterized by progressive neurodegeneration that impairs motor and cognitive function. We previously demonstrated that LRRK2-mediated phosphorylation of β-amyloid precursor protein (APP) triggers the production and nuclear translocation of the APP intracellular domain (AICD). Here, we connected LRRK2 to AICD in a feed-forward cycle that enhanced LRRK2-mediated neurotoxicity. In cooperation with the transcription factor FOXO3a, AICD promoted LRRK2 expression, thus increasing the abundance of LRRK2 that promotes AICD activation. APP deficiency in LRRK2G2019S mice suppressed LRRK2 expression, LRRK2-mediated mitochondrial dysfunction, α-synuclein accumulation, and tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) loss in the brain, phenotypes associated with toxicity and loss of dopaminergic neurons in PD. Conversely, AICD overexpression increased LRRK2 expression and LRRK2-mediated neurotoxicity in LRRK2G2019S mice. In LRRK2G2019S mice or cultured dopaminergic neurons from LRRK2G2019S patients, treatment with itanapraced reduced LRRK2 expression and was neuroprotective. Itanapraced showed similar effects in a neurotoxin-induced PD mouse model, suggesting that inhibiting the AICD may also have therapeutic benefits in idiopathic PD. Our findings reveal a therapeutically targetable, feed-forward mechanism through which AICD promotes LRRK2-mediated neurotoxicity in PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhi-Wei Zhang
- Neural Stem Cell Research Lab, Research Department, National Neuroscience Institute, Singapore 308433, Singapore
| | - Haitao Tu
- Neural Stem Cell Research Lab, Research Department, National Neuroscience Institute, Singapore 308433, Singapore
| | - Mei Jiang
- Neural Stem Cell Research Lab, Research Department, National Neuroscience Institute, Singapore 308433, Singapore.,Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510080, China
| | - Sarivin Vanan
- Neural Stem Cell Research Lab, Research Department, National Neuroscience Institute, Singapore 308433, Singapore
| | - Sook Yoong Chia
- Neural Stem Cell Research Lab, Research Department, National Neuroscience Institute, Singapore 308433, Singapore
| | - Se-Eun Jang
- Neural Stem Cell Research Lab, Research Department, National Neuroscience Institute, Singapore 308433, Singapore
| | - Wuan-Ting Saw
- Research Department, National Neuroscience Institute, Singapore General Hospital (SGH) Campus, Singapore 169856, Singapore
| | - Zhi-Wei Ong
- Neural Stem Cell Research Lab, Research Department, National Neuroscience Institute, Singapore 308433, Singapore
| | - Dong-Rui Ma
- Department of Neurology, Singapore General Hospital, Singapore 169609, Singapore
| | - Zhi-Dong Zhou
- Research Department, National Neuroscience Institute, Singapore General Hospital (SGH) Campus, Singapore 169856, Singapore.,Neuroscience and Behavioral Disorders Program, DUKE-NUS Graduate Medical School, Singapore 169857, Singapore
| | - Jie Xu
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510080, China
| | - Kai-Hua Guo
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510080, China
| | - Wei-Ping Yu
- Animal Gene Editing Laboratory, Biological Resource Center, A*STAR, Singapore 138673, Singapore.,Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, A*STAR, Singapore 138673, Singapore
| | - Shuo-Chien Ling
- Neuroscience and Behavioral Disorders Program, DUKE-NUS Graduate Medical School, Singapore 169857, Singapore.,Department of Physiology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore 119077, Singapore
| | | | | | - Li Zeng
- Neural Stem Cell Research Lab, Research Department, National Neuroscience Institute, Singapore 308433, Singapore.,Neuroscience and Behavioral Disorders Program, DUKE-NUS Graduate Medical School, Singapore 169857, Singapore.,Centre for Molecular Neuropathology, Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technology University, Novena Campus, Singapore 308232, Singapore
| | - Eng-King Tan
- Research Department, National Neuroscience Institute, Singapore General Hospital (SGH) Campus, Singapore 169856, Singapore.,Neuroscience and Behavioral Disorders Program, DUKE-NUS Graduate Medical School, Singapore 169857, Singapore.,Department of Neurology, National Neuroscience Institute, Singapore 308433, Singapore
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4
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Greenwood EK, Angelova DM, Büchner HMI, Brown DR. The AICD fragment of APP initiates a FoxO3a mediated response via FANCD2. Mol Cell Neurosci 2022; 122:103760. [PMID: 35901928 DOI: 10.1016/j.mcn.2022.103760] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2022] [Revised: 07/11/2022] [Accepted: 07/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The amyloid precursor protein (APP) is a cell surface protein of uncertain function that is notable for being the parent protein of beta-amyloid. Research around this protein has focussed heavily on the link to Alzheimer's disease and neurodegeneration. However, there is increasing evidence that APP may be linked to neuronal loss through mechanisms independent of beta-amyloid. FoxO3a is a transcription factor associated with neuronal longevity and apoptosis. In neurons, FoxO3a is associated with cell death through pathways that include BIM, a BCL-2 family member. In this study we have shown that APP overexpression increased the cellular levels and activity of FoxO3a. This increased expression and activity is not a result of decreased phosphorylation but is more likely a result of increased nuclear stability due to increased levels of FANCD2, a binding partner of FoxO3a. The changes caused by APP overexpression were shown to be due to the AICD fragment of APP possibly directly inducing transcription increase in FANCD2. These findings strengthen the link between APP metabolism and FoxO3a neuronal activity. This link may be crucial in better understanding the cellular role of APP and its link to neurodegeneration and aging.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - David R Brown
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Bath, Bath BA2 7AY, UK.
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Stagni F, Bartesaghi R. The Challenging Pathway of Treatment for Neurogenesis Impairment in Down Syndrome: Achievements and Perspectives. Front Cell Neurosci 2022; 16:903729. [PMID: 35634470 PMCID: PMC9130961 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2022.903729] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2022] [Accepted: 04/19/2022] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Down syndrome (DS), also known as trisomy 21, is a genetic disorder caused by triplication of Chromosome 21. Gene triplication may compromise different body functions but invariably impairs intellectual abilities starting from infancy. Moreover, after the fourth decade of life people with DS are likely to develop Alzheimer’s disease. Neurogenesis impairment during fetal life stages and dendritic pathology emerging in early infancy are thought to be key determinants of alterations in brain functioning in DS. Although the progressive improvement in medical care has led to a notable increase in life expectancy for people with DS, there are currently no treatments for intellectual disability. Increasing evidence in mouse models of DS reveals that pharmacological interventions in the embryonic and neonatal periods may greatly benefit brain development and cognitive performance. The most striking results have been obtained with pharmacotherapies during embryonic life stages, indicating that it is possible to pharmacologically rescue the severe neurodevelopmental defects linked to the trisomic condition. These findings provide hope that similar benefits may be possible for people with DS. This review summarizes current knowledge regarding (i) the scope and timeline of neurogenesis (and dendritic) alterations in DS, in order to delineate suitable windows for treatment; (ii) the role of triplicated genes that are most likely to be the key determinants of these alterations, in order to highlight possible therapeutic targets; and (iii) prenatal and neonatal treatments that have proved to be effective in mouse models, in order to rationalize the choice of treatment for human application. Based on this body of evidence we will discuss prospects and challenges for fetal therapy in individuals with DS as a potential means of drastically counteracting the deleterious effects of gene triplication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fiorenza Stagni
- Department for Life Quality Studies, University of Bologna, Rimini, Italy
| | - Renata Bartesaghi
- Department of Biomedical and Neuromotor Sciences, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
- *Correspondence: Renata Bartesaghi,
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D’Andrea L, Stringhi R, Di Luca M, Marcello E. Looking at Alzheimer's Disease Pathogenesis from the Nuclear Side. Biomolecules 2021; 11:biom11091261. [PMID: 34572474 PMCID: PMC8467578 DOI: 10.3390/biom11091261] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2021] [Revised: 08/19/2021] [Accepted: 08/20/2021] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disorder representing the most common form of dementia. It is biologically characterized by the deposition of extracellular amyloid-β (Aβ) senile plaques and intracellular neurofibrillary tangles, constituted by hyperphosphorylated tau protein. The key protein in AD pathogenesis is the amyloid precursor protein (APP), which is cleaved by secretases to produce several metabolites, including Aβ and APP intracellular domain (AICD). The greatest genetic risk factor associated with AD is represented by the Apolipoprotein E ε4 (APOE ε4) allele. Importantly, all of the above-mentioned molecules that are strictly related to AD pathogenesis have also been described as playing roles in the cell nucleus. Accordingly, evidence suggests that nuclear functions are compromised in AD. Furthermore, modulation of transcription maintains cellular homeostasis, and alterations in transcriptomic profiles have been found in neurodegenerative diseases. This report reviews recent advancements in the AD players-mediated gene expression. Aβ, tau, AICD, and APOE ε4 localize in the nucleus and regulate the transcription of several genes, part of which is involved in AD pathogenesis, thus suggesting that targeting nuclear functions might provide new therapeutic tools for the disease.
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7
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Impaired neurogenesis in the hippocampus of an adult VPS35 mutant mouse model of Parkinson's disease through interaction with APP. Neurobiol Dis 2021; 153:105313. [PMID: 33636388 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2021.105313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2021] [Accepted: 02/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Vacuolar protein sorting protein 35 (VPS35) is a core component of the retromer complex involved in regulating protein trafficking and retrieval. Recently, a missense mutation, Asp620Asn (D620N), in VPS35 (PARK17) has been identified as a pathogenic mutation for late-onset autosomal dominant Parkinson's disease (PD). Although PD is characterized by a range of motor symptoms associated with loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantial nigra, non-motor symptoms such as impaired hippocampal neurogenesis were observed in both PD patients and animal models of PD caused by multiple PD-linked pathogenic genes such as alpha-synuclein and leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2). However, the role of the VPS35 D620N mutation in adult hippocampal neurogenesis remains unknown. Here, we showed that the VPS35 D620N mutation impaired hippocampal neurogenesis in adult transgenic mice expressing the VPS35 D620N gene. Specifically, we showed a reduction in the neural stem cell pool and neural proliferation and differentiation, retarded migration, and impaired neurite outgrowth in 3-month-old VPS35 D620N mutant mice. Moreover, we found that the VPS35 D620N mutant hyperphosphorylates amyloid precursor protein (APP) at Thr668and interacts with APP. Notably, by crossing the VPS35 D620N mutant mice with APP knockout (KO) mice, we showed that loss of APP function rescues VPS35 D620N-inhibited neurogenesis, neural migration, and maturation. Our study provides important evidence that APP is involved in the VPS35 D620N mutation in regulating adult neurogenesis, which sheds light on the pathogenic mechanisms in PD.
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Houben S, Homa M, Yilmaz Z, Leroy K, Brion JP, Ando K. Tau Pathology and Adult Hippocampal Neurogenesis: What Tau Mouse Models Tell us? Front Neurol 2021; 12:610330. [PMID: 33643196 PMCID: PMC7902892 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2021.610330] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2020] [Accepted: 01/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Adult hippocampal neurogenesis (AHN) has been widely confirmed in mammalian brains. A growing body of evidence points to the fact that AHN sustains hippocampal-dependent functions such as learning and memory. Impaired AHN has been reported in post-mortem human brain hippocampus of Alzheimer's disease (AD) and is considered to contribute to defects in learning and memory. Neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs) and amyloid plaques are the two key neuropathological hallmarks of AD. NFTs are composed of abnormal tau proteins accumulating in many brain areas during the progression of the disease, including in the hippocampus. The physiological role of tau and impact of tau pathology on AHN is still poorly understood. Modifications in AHN have also been reported in some tau transgenic and tau-deleted mouse models. We present here a brief review of advances in the relationship between development of tau pathology and AHN in AD and what insights have been gained from studies in tau mouse models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Houben
- Laboratory of Histology, Neuroanatomy and Neuropathology, UNI (ULB Neuroscience Institute), Faculty of Medicine, Université Libre de Bruxelles, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Mégane Homa
- Laboratory of Histology, Neuroanatomy and Neuropathology, UNI (ULB Neuroscience Institute), Faculty of Medicine, Université Libre de Bruxelles, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Zehra Yilmaz
- Laboratory of Histology, Neuroanatomy and Neuropathology, UNI (ULB Neuroscience Institute), Faculty of Medicine, Université Libre de Bruxelles, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Karelle Leroy
- Laboratory of Histology, Neuroanatomy and Neuropathology, UNI (ULB Neuroscience Institute), Faculty of Medicine, Université Libre de Bruxelles, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Jean-Pierre Brion
- Laboratory of Histology, Neuroanatomy and Neuropathology, UNI (ULB Neuroscience Institute), Faculty of Medicine, Université Libre de Bruxelles, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Kunie Ando
- Laboratory of Histology, Neuroanatomy and Neuropathology, UNI (ULB Neuroscience Institute), Faculty of Medicine, Université Libre de Bruxelles, Brussels, Belgium
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Vanan S, Zeng X, Chia SY, Varnäs K, Jiang M, Zhang K, Saw WT, Padmanabhan P, Yu WP, Zhou ZD, Halldin C, Gulyás B, Tan EK, Zeng L. Altered striatal dopamine levels in Parkinson's disease VPS35 D620N mutant transgenic aged mice. Mol Brain 2020; 13:164. [PMID: 33261640 PMCID: PMC7706192 DOI: 10.1186/s13041-020-00704-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2020] [Accepted: 11/23/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Vacuolar protein sorting 35 (VPS35) is a major component of the retromer complex that mediates the retrograde transport of cargo proteins from endosomes to the trans-Golgi network. Mutations such as D620N in the VPS35 gene have been identified in patients with autosomal dominant Parkinson's disease (PD). However, it remains poorly understood whether and how VPS35 deficiency or mutation contributes to PD pathogenesis; specifically, the studies that have examined VPS35 thus far have differed in results and methodologies. We generated a VPS35 D620N mouse model using a Rosa26-based transgene expression platform to allow expression in a spatial manner, so as to better address these discrepancies. Here, aged (20-months-old) mice were first subjected to behavioral tests. Subsequently, DAB staining analysis of substantia nigra (SN) dopaminergic neurons with the marker for tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) was performed. Next, HPLC was used to determine dopamine levels, along with levels of its two metabolites, 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid (DOPAC) and homovanillic acid (HVA), in the striatum. Western blotting was also performed to study the levels of key proteins associated with PD. Lastly, autoradiography (ARG) evaluation of [3H]FE-PE2I binding to the striatal dopamine transporter DAT was carried out. We found that VPS35 D620N Tg mice displayed a significantly higher dopamine level than NTg counterparts. All results were then compared with that of current VPS35 studies to shed light on the disease pathogenesis. Our model allows future studies to explicitly control spatial expression of the transgene which would generate a more reliable PD phenotype.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarivin Vanan
- Neural Stem Cell Research Lab, Research Department, National Neuroscience Institute, Singapore, 308433, Singapore
| | - Xiaoxia Zeng
- Neural Stem Cell Research Lab, Research Department, National Neuroscience Institute, Singapore, 308433, Singapore
| | - Sook Yoong Chia
- Neural Stem Cell Research Lab, Research Department, National Neuroscience Institute, Singapore, 308433, Singapore
| | - Katarina Varnäs
- Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Psychiatry Section, Karolinska Institutet PET Centre, Karolinska Institutet, Karolinska University Hospital Solna, R5:02, 171 76, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Mei Jiang
- Neural Stem Cell Research Lab, Research Department, National Neuroscience Institute, Singapore, 308433, Singapore
| | - Ke Zhang
- Neural Stem Cell Research Lab, Research Department, National Neuroscience Institute, Singapore, 308433, Singapore
| | - Wuan Ting Saw
- Department of Research, National Neuroscience Institute, 11 Jalan Tan Tock Seng, Singapore, 308433, Singapore
| | - Parasuraman Padmanabhan
- Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, 636921, Singapore
| | - Wei-Ping Yu
- Animal Gene Editing Laboratory, Biological Resource Centre, A*STAR, Singapore, 138673, Singapore.,Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, A*STAR, 61 Biopolis Drive, Proteos, Singapore, 138673, Singapore
| | - Zhi-Dong Zhou
- Department of Research, National Neuroscience Institute, 11 Jalan Tan Tock Seng, Singapore, 308433, Singapore.,Signature Research Program in Neuroscience and Behavioral Disorders Program, DUKE-NUS Graduate Medical School, Singapore, 169857, Singapore
| | - Christer Halldin
- Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Psychiatry Section, Karolinska Institutet PET Centre, Karolinska Institutet, Karolinska University Hospital Solna, R5:02, 171 76, Stockholm, Sweden.,Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, 636921, Singapore
| | - Balázs Gulyás
- Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Psychiatry Section, Karolinska Institutet PET Centre, Karolinska Institutet, Karolinska University Hospital Solna, R5:02, 171 76, Stockholm, Sweden.,Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, 636921, Singapore
| | - Eng-King Tan
- Department of Research, National Neuroscience Institute, 11 Jalan Tan Tock Seng, Singapore, 308433, Singapore. .,Signature Research Program in Neuroscience and Behavioral Disorders Program, DUKE-NUS Graduate Medical School, Singapore, 169857, Singapore. .,Department of Neurology, National Neuroscience Institute, SGH Campus, Singapore, 169856, Singapore.
| | - Li Zeng
- Neural Stem Cell Research Lab, Research Department, National Neuroscience Institute, Singapore, 308433, Singapore. .,Signature Research Program in Neuroscience and Behavioral Disorders Program, DUKE-NUS Graduate Medical School, Singapore, 169857, Singapore. .,Center for Molecular Neuropathology, Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University, Novena Campus, 11 Mandalay Road, Singapore, 308232, Singapore.
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