Building the Neuronal Microtubule Cytoskeleton

How do neurons age? A focused review on the aging of the microtubular cytoskeleton

Aging is the leading risk factor for Alzheimer's disease and other neurodegenerative diseases. We now understand that a breakdown in the neuronal cytoskeleton, mainly underpinned by protein modifications leading to the destabilization of microtubules, is central to the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease. This is accompanied by morphological defects across the somatodendritic compartment, axon, and synapse. However, knowledge of what occurs to the microtubule cytoskeleton and morphology of the neuron during physiological aging is comparatively poor. Several recent studies have suggested that there is an age-related increase in the phosphorylation of the key microtubule stabilizing protein tau, a modification, which is known to destabilize the cytoskeleton in Alzheimer's disease. This indicates that the cytoskeleton and potentially other neuronal structures reliant on the cytoskeleton become functionally compromised during normal physiological aging. The current literature shows age-related reductions in synaptic spine density and shifts in synaptic spine conformation which might explain age-related synaptic functional deficits. However, knowledge of what occurs to the microtubular and actin cytoskeleton, with increasing age is extremely limited. When considering the somatodendritic compartment, a regression in dendrites and loss of dendritic length and volume is reported whilst a reduction in soma volume/size is often seen. However, research into cytoskeletal change is limited to a handful of studies demonstrating reductions in and mislocalizations of microtubule-associated proteins with just one study directly exploring the integrity of the microtubules. In the axon, an increase in axonal diameter and age-related appearance of swellings is reported but like the dendrites, just one study investigates the microtubules directly with others reporting loss or mislocalization of microtubule-associated proteins. Though these are the general trends reported, there are clear disparities between model organisms and brain regions that are worthy of further investigation. Additionally, longitudinal studies of neuronal/cytoskeletal aging should also investigate whether these age-related changes contribute not just to vulnerability to disease but also to the decline in nervous system function and behavioral output that all organisms experience. This will highlight the utility, if any, of cytoskeletal fortification for the promotion of healthy neuronal aging and potential protection against age-related neurodegenerative disease. This review seeks to summarize what is currently known about the physiological aging of the neuron and microtubular cytoskeleton in the hope of uncovering mechanisms underpinning age-related risk to disease.

PIEZO1 as a new target for hyperglycemic stress-induced neuropathic injury: The potential therapeutic role of bezafibrate

Hyperglycemic stress can directly lead to neuronal damage. The mechanosensitive ion channel PIEZO1 can be activated in response to hyperglycemia, but its role in hyperglycemic neurotoxicity is unclear. The role of PIEZO1 in hyperglycemic neurotoxicity was explored by constructing a hyperglycemic mouse model and a high-glucose HT22 cell model. The results showed that PIEZO1 was significantly upregulated in response to high glucose stress. In vitro experiments have shown that high glucose stress induces changes in neuronal cell morphology and membrane tension, a key mechanism for PIEZO1 activation. In addition, high glucose stress upregulates serum/glucocorticoid-regulated kinase-1 (SGK1) and activates PIEZO1 through the Ca2+ pool and store-operated calcium entry (SOCE). PIEZO1-mediated Ca2+ influx further enhances SGK1 and SOCE, inducing intracellular Ca2+ peaks in neurons. PIEZO1 mediated intracellular Ca2+ elevation leads to calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase 2α (CaMK2α) overactivation, which promotes oxidative stress and apoptosis signalling through p-CaMK2α/ERK/CREB and ox-CaMK2α/MAPK p38/NFκB p65 pathways, subsequently inducing synaptic damage and cognitive impairment in mice. The intron miR-107 of pantothenic kinase 1 (PANK1) is highly expressed in the brain and has been found to target PIEZO1 and SGK1. The PANK1 receptor is activated by peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor α (PPARα), an activator known to upregulate miR-107 levels in the brain. The clinically used lipid-lowering drug bezafibrate, a known PPARα activator, may upregulate miR-107 through the PPARɑ/PANK1 pathway, thereby inhibiting PIEZO1 and improving hyperglycemia-induced neuronal cell damage. This study provides a new idea for the pathogenesis and drug treatment of hyperglycemic neurotoxicity and diabetes-related cognitive dysfunction.

CRMP/UNC-33 maintains neuronal microtubule arrays by promoting individual microtubule rescue

Microtubules (MTs) are intrinsically dynamic polymers. In neurons, staggered individual microtubules form stable, polarized acentrosomal MT arrays spanning the axon and dendrite to support long-distance intracellular transport. How the stability and polarity of these arrays are maintained when individual MTs remain highly dynamic is still an open question. Here we visualize MT arrays in vivo in C. elegans neurons with single microtubule resolution. We find that the CRMP family homolog, UNC-33, is essential for the stability and polarity of MT arrays in neurites. In unc-33 mutants, MTs exhibit dramatically reduced rescue after catastrophe, develop gaps in coverage, and lose their polarity, leading to trafficking defects. UNC-33 is stably anchored on the cortical cytoskeleton and forms patch-like structures along the dendritic shaft. These discrete and stable UNC-33 patches concentrate free tubulins and correlate with MT rescue sites. In vitro , purified UNC-33 preferentially associates with MT tips and increases MT rescue frequency. Together, we propose that UNC-33 functions as a microtubule-associated protein (MAP) to promote individual MT rescue locally. Through this activity, UNC-33 prevents the loss of individual MTs, thereby maintaining the coverage and polarity of MT arrays throughout the lifetime of neurons.

LncRNA TubAR complexes with TUBB4A and TUBA1A to promote microtubule assembly and maintain myelination

A long-standing hypothesis proposes that certain RNA(s) must exhibit structural roles in microtubule assembly. Here, we identify a long noncoding RNA (TubAR) that is highly expressed in cerebellum and forms RNA-protein complex with TUBB4A and TUBA1A, two tubulins clinically linked to cerebellar and myelination defects. TubAR knockdown in mouse cerebellum causes loss of oligodendrocytes and Purkinje cells, demyelination, and decreased locomotor activity. Biochemically, we establish the roles of TubAR in promoting TUBB4A-TUBA1A heterodimer formation and microtubule assembly. Intriguingly, different from the hypomyelination-causing mutations, the non-hypomyelination-causing mutation TUBB4A-R2G confers gain-of-function for an RNA-independent interaction with TUBA1A. Experimental use of R2G/A mutations restores TUBB4A-TUBA1A heterodimer formation, and rescues the neuronal cell death phenotype caused by TubAR knockdown. Together, we uncover TubAR as the long-elusive structural RNA for microtubule assembly and demonstrate how TubAR mediates microtubule assembly specifically from αβ-tubulin heterodimers, which is crucial for maintenance of cerebellar myelination and activity.

Pip5k1γ regulates axon formation by limiting Rap1 activity

During their differentiation, neurons establish a highly polarized morphology by forming axons and dendrites. Cortical and hippocampal neurons initially extend several short neurites that all have the potential to become an axon. One of these neurites is then selected as the axon by a combination of positive and negative feedback signals that promote axon formation and prevent the remaining neurites from developing into axons. Here, we show that Pip5k1γ is required for the formation of a single axon as a negative feedback signal that regulates C3G and Rap1 through the generation of phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate (PI(4,5)P2). Impairing the function of Pip5k1γ results in a hyper-activation of the Fyn/C3G/Rap1 pathway, which induces the formation of supernumerary axons. Application of a hyper-osmotic shock to modulate membrane tension has a similar effect, increasing Rap1 activity and inducing the formation of supernumerary axons. In both cases, the induction of supernumerary axons can be reverted by expressing constitutively active Pip5k. Our results show that PI(4,5)P2-dependent membrane properties limit the activity of C3G and Rap1 to ensure the extension of a single axon.

γ-TuRCs and the augmin complex are required for the development of highly branched dendritic arbors in Drosophila

Microtubules are nucleated by γ-tubulin ring complexes (γ-TuRCs) and are essential for neuronal development. Nevertheless, γ-TuRC depletion has been reported to perturb only higher-order branching in elaborated Drosophila larval class IV dendritic arborization (da) neurons. This relatively mild phenotype has been attributed to defects in microtubule nucleation from Golgi outposts, yet most Golgi outposts lack associated γ-TuRCs. By analyzing dendritic arbor regrowth in pupae, we show that γ-TuRCs are also required for the growth and branching of primary and secondary dendrites, as well as for higher-order branching. Moreover, we identify the augmin complex (hereafter augmin), which recruits γ-TuRCs to the sides of pre-existing microtubules, as being required predominantly for higher-order branching. Augmin strongly promotes the anterograde growth of microtubules in terminal dendrites and thus terminal dendrite stability. Consistent with a specific role in higher-order branching, we find that augmin is expressed less strongly and is largely dispensable in larval class I da neurons, which exhibit few higher-order dendrites. Thus, γ-TuRCs are essential for various aspects of complex dendritic arbor development, and they appear to function in higher-order branching via the augmin pathway, which promotes the elaboration of dendritic arbors to help define neuronal morphology.

Loss of Katnal2 leads to ependymal ciliary hyperfunction and autism-related phenotypes in mice

Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) frequently accompany macrocephaly, which often involves hydrocephalic enlargement of brain ventricles. Katnal2 is a microtubule-regulatory protein strongly linked to ASD, but it remains unclear whether Katnal2 knockout (KO) in mice leads to microtubule- and ASD-related molecular, synaptic, brain, and behavioral phenotypes. We found that Katnal2-KO mice display ASD-like social communication deficits and age-dependent progressive ventricular enlargements. The latter involves increased length and beating frequency of motile cilia on ependymal cells lining ventricles. Katnal2-KO hippocampal neurons surrounded by enlarged lateral ventricles show progressive synaptic deficits that correlate with ASD-like transcriptomic changes involving synaptic gene down-regulation. Importantly, early postnatal Katnal2 re-expression prevents ciliary, ventricular, and behavioral phenotypes in Katnal2-KO adults, suggesting a causal relationship and a potential treatment. Therefore, Katnal2 negatively regulates ependymal ciliary function and its deletion in mice leads to ependymal ciliary hyperfunction and hydrocephalus accompanying ASD-related behavioral, synaptic, and transcriptomic changes.

Augmin complex activity finetunes dendrite morphology through non-centrosomal microtubule nucleation in vivo

During development, neurons achieve a stereotyped neuron type-specific morphology, which relies on dynamic support by microtubules (MTs). An important player is the augmin complex (hereafter augmin), which binds to existing MT filaments and recruits the γ-tubulin ring complex (γ-TuRC), to form branched MTs. In cultured neurons, augmin is important for neurite formation. However, little is known about the role of augmin during neurite formation in vivo. Here, we have revisited the role of mammalian augmin in culture and then turned towards the class four Drosophila dendritic arborization (c4da) neurons. We show that MT density is maintained through augmin in cooperation with the γ-TuRC in vivo. Mutant c4da neurons show a reduction of newly emerging higher-order dendritic branches and in turn also a reduced number of their characteristic space-filling higher-order branchlets. Taken together, our data reveal a cooperative function for augmin with the γ-TuRC in forming enough MTs needed for the appropriate differentiation of morphologically complex dendrites in vivo.

Role of tubulin C-terminal tail on mechanical properties of microtubule

Tubulin C-terminal tail (CTT) is a disordered segment extended from each tubulin monomer of αβ tubulin heterodimers, the building blocks of microtubules. The tubulin CTT contributes to the cellular function of microtubules such as intracellular transportation by regulating their interaction with other proteins and cell shape regulation by controlling microtubule polymerization dynamics. Although the mechanical integrity of microtubules is crucial for their functions, the role of tubulin CTT on microtubule mechanical properties has remained elusive. In this work, we investigate the role of tubulin CTTs in regulating the mechanical properties of microtubules by estimating the persistence lengths and investigating the buckling behavior of microtubules with and without CTT. We find that microtubules with intact CTTs exhibit twice the rigidity of microtubules lacking tubulin CTTs. Our study will widen the scope of altering microtubule mechanical properties for its application in nano bio-devices and lead to novel therapeutic approaches for neurodegenerative diseases with altered microtubule properties.

The role of calcium in neuronal membrane tension and synaptic plasticity

Calcium is a primary second messenger that plays a role in cellular functions including growth, movement and responses to drugs. The role that calcium plays in mediating communication between neurons by synaptic vesicle release is well established. This review focuses on the dependence of the physical properties of neuronal plasma membranes on calcium levels. After describing the key features of synaptic plasticity, we summarize the general role of calcium in cell function and the signaling pathways responsible for intracellular increase in calcium levels. We then present findings showing that increases in intracellular calcium levels cause neurites to contract and break synaptic connections by changes in membrane tension.

Minimal Mechanisms of Microtubule Length Regulation in Living Cells

The microtubule cytoskeleton is responsible for sustained, long-range intracellular transport of mRNAs, proteins, and organelles in neurons. Neuronal microtubules must be stable enough to ensure reliable transport, but they also undergo dynamic instability, as their plus and minus ends continuously switch between growth and shrinking. This process allows for continuous rebuilding of the cytoskeleton and for flexibility in injury settings. Motivated by in vivo experimental data on microtubule behavior in Drosophila neurons, we propose a mathematical model of dendritic microtubule dynamics, with a focus on understanding microtubule length, velocity, and state-duration distributions. We find that limitations on microtubule growth phases are needed for realistic dynamics, but the type of limiting mechanism leads to qualitatively different responses to plausible experimental perturbations. We therefore propose and investigate two minimally-complex length-limiting factors: limitation due to resource (tubulin) constraints and limitation due to catastrophe of large-length microtubules. We combine simulations of a detailed stochastic model with steady-state analysis of a mean-field ordinary differential equations model to map out qualitatively distinct parameter regimes. This provides a basis for predicting changes in microtubule dynamics, tubulin allocation, and the turnover rate of tubulin within microtubules in different experimental environments.

Role of Cytoskeletal Elements in Regulation of Synaptic Functions: Implications Toward Alzheimer's Disease and Phytochemicals-Based Interventions

Alzheimer's disease (AD), a multifactorial disease, is characterized by the accumulation of neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs) and amyloid beta (Aβ) plaques. AD is triggered via several factors like alteration in cytoskeletal proteins, a mutation in presenilin 1 (PSEN1), presenilin 2 (PSEN2), amyloid precursor protein (APP), and post-translational modifications (PTMs) in the cytoskeletal elements. Owing to the major structural and functional role of cytoskeletal elements, like the organization of axon initial segmentation, dendritic spines, synaptic regulation, and delivery of cargo at the synapse; modulation of these elements plays an important role in AD pathogenesis; like Tau is a microtubule-associated protein that stabilizes the microtubules, and it also causes inhibition of nucleo-cytoplasmic transportation by disrupting the integrity of nuclear pore complex. One of the major cytoskeletal elements, actin and its dynamics, regulate the dendritic spine structure and functions; impairments have been documented towards learning and memory defects. The second major constituent of these cytoskeletal elements, microtubules, are necessary for the delivery of the cargo, like ion channels and receptors at the synaptic membranes, whereas actin-binding protein, i.e., Cofilin's activation form rod-like structures, is involved in the formation of paired helical filaments (PHFs) observed in AD. Also, the glial cells rely on their cytoskeleton to maintain synaptic functionality. Thus, making cytoskeletal elements and their regulation in synaptic structure and function as an important aspect to be focused for better management and targeting AD pathology. This review advocates exploring phytochemicals and Ayurvedic plant extracts against AD by elucidating their neuroprotective mechanisms involving cytoskeletal modulation and enhancing synaptic plasticity. However, challenges include their limited bioavailability due to the poor solubility and the limited potential to cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB), emphasizing the need for targeted strategies to improve therapeutic efficacy.

Tubulin CFEOM mutations both inhibit or activate kinesin motor activity

Kinesin-mediated transport along microtubules is critical for axon development and health. Mutations in the kinesin Kif21a, or the microtubule subunit β-tubulin, inhibit axon growth and/or maintenance resulting in the eye-movement disorder congenital fibrosis of the extraocular muscles (CFEOM). While most examined CFEOM-causing β-tubulin mutations inhibit kinesin-microtubule interactions, Kif21a mutations activate the motor protein. These contrasting observations have led to opposed models of inhibited or hyperactive Kif21a in CFEOM. We show that, contrary to other CFEOM-causing β-tubulin mutations, R380C enhances kinesin activity. Expression of β-tubulin-R380C increases kinesin-mediated peroxisome transport in S2 cells. The binding frequency, percent motile engagements, run length and plus-end dwell time of Kif21a are also elevated on β-tubulin-R380C compared with wildtype microtubules in vitro. This conserved effect persists across tubulins from multiple species and kinesins from different families. The enhanced activity is independent of tail-mediated kinesin autoinhibition and thus utilizes a mechanism distinct from CFEOM-causing Kif21a mutations. Using molecular dynamics, we visualize how β-tubulin-R380C allosterically alters critical structural elements within the kinesin motor domain, suggesting a basis for the enhanced motility. These findings resolve the disparate models and confirm that inhibited or increased kinesin activity can both contribute to CFEOM. They also demonstrate the microtubule's role in regulating kinesins and highlight the importance of balanced transport for cellular and organismal health.

Neuronal ageing is promoted by the decay of the microtubule cytoskeleton

Natural ageing is accompanied by a decline in motor, sensory, and cognitive functions, all impacting quality of life. Ageing is also the predominant risk factor for many neurodegenerative diseases, including Parkinson's disease and Alzheimer's disease. We need to therefore gain a better understanding of the cellular and physiological processes underlying age-related neuronal decay. However, gaining this understanding is a slow process due to the large amount of time required to age mammalian or vertebrate animal models. Here, we introduce a new cellular model within the Drosophila brain, in which we report classical ageing hallmarks previously observed in the primate brain. These hallmarks include axonal swellings, cytoskeletal decay, a reduction in axonal calibre, and morphological changes arising at synaptic terminals. In the fly brain, these changes begin to occur within a few weeks, ideal to study the underlying mechanisms of ageing. We discovered that the decay of the neuronal microtubule (MT) cytoskeleton precedes the onset of other ageing hallmarks. We showed that the MT-binding factors Tau, EB1, and Shot/MACF1, are necessary for MT maintenance in axons and synapses, and that their functional loss during ageing triggers MT bundle decay, followed by a decline in axons and synaptic terminals. Furthermore, genetic manipulations that improve MT networks slowed down the onset of neuronal ageing hallmarks and confer aged specimens the ability to outperform age-matched controls. Our work suggests that MT networks are a key lesion site in ageing neurons and therefore the MT cytoskeleton offers a promising target to improve neuronal decay in advanced age.

The role of glial cells in mental illness: a systematic review on astroglia and microglia as potential players in schizophrenia and its cognitive and emotional aspects

Schizophrenia is a complex and severe mental disorder that affects approximately 1% of the global population. It is characterized by a wide range of symptoms, including delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech and behavior, and cognitive impairment. Recent research has suggested that the immune system dysregulation may play a significant role in the pathogenesis of schizophrenia, and glial cells, such as astroglia and microglia known to be involved in neuroinflammation and immune regulation, have emerged as potential players in this process. The aim of this systematic review is to summarize the glial hallmarks of schizophrenia, choosing as cellular candidate the astroglia and microglia, and focusing also on disease-associated psychological (cognitive and emotional) changes. We conducted a systematic review following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines. We searched PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science for articles that investigated the differences in astroglia and microglia in patients with schizophrenia, published in the last 5 years. The present systematic review indicates that changes in the density, morphology, and functioning of astroglia and microglia may be involved in the development of schizophrenia. The glial alterations may contribute to the pathogenesis of schizophrenia by dysregulating neurotransmission and immune responses, worsening cognitive capabilities. The complex interplay of astroglial and microglial activation, genetic/epigenetic variations, and cognitive assessments underscores the intricate relationship between biological mechanisms, symptomatology, and cognitive functioning in schizophrenia.

De Novo Variants Found in Three Distinct Schizophrenia Populations Hit a Common Core Gene Network Related to Microtubule and Actin Cytoskeleton Gene Ontology Classes

Schizophrenia (SZ) is a heterogeneous and debilitating psychiatric disorder with a strong genetic component. To elucidate functional networks perturbed in schizophrenia, we analysed a large dataset of whole-genome studies that identified SNVs, CNVs, and a multi-stage schizophrenia genome-wide association study. Our analysis identified three subclusters that are interrelated and with small overlaps: GO:0007017~Microtubule-Based Process, GO:00015629~Actin Cytoskeleton, and GO:0007268~SynapticTransmission. We next analysed three distinct trio cohorts of 75 SZ Algerian, 45 SZ French, and 61 SZ Japanese patients. We performed Illumina HiSeq whole-exome sequencing and identified de novo mutations using a Bayesian approach. We validated 88 de novo mutations by Sanger sequencing: 35 in French, 21 in Algerian, and 32 in Japanese SZ patients. These 88 de novo mutations exhibited an enrichment in genes encoding proteins related to GO:0051015~actin filament binding (p = 0.0011) using David, and enrichments in GO: 0003774~transport (p = 0.019) and GO:0003729~mRNA binding (p = 0.010) using Amigo. One of these de novo variant was found in CORO1C coding sequence. We studied Coro1c haploinsufficiency in a Coro1c+/- mouse and found defects in the corpus callosum. These results could motivate future studies of the mechanisms surrounding genes encoding proteins involved in transport and the cytoskeleton, with the goal of developing therapeutic intervention strategies for a subset of SZ cases.

Connecting neurodevelopment to neurodegeneration: a spotlight on the role of kinesin superfamily protein 2A (KIF2A)

Microtubules play a central role in cytoskeletal changes during neuronal development and maintenance. Microtubule dynamics is essential to polarity and shape transitions underlying neural cell division, differentiation, motility, and maturation. Kinesin superfamily protein 2A is a member of human kinesin 13 gene family of proteins that depolymerize and destabilize microtubules. In dividing cells, kinesin superfamily protein 2A is involved in mitotic progression, spindle assembly, and chromosome segregation. In postmitotic neurons, it is required for axon/dendrite specification and extension, neuronal migration, connectivity, and survival. Humans with kinesin superfamily protein 2A mutations suffer from a variety of malformations of cortical development, epilepsy, autism spectrum disorder, and neurodegeneration. In this review, we discuss how kinesin superfamily protein 2A regulates neuronal development and function, and how its deregulation causes neurodevelopmental and neurological disorders.

Linking acetylated α-Tubulin redistribution to α-Synuclein pathology in brain of Parkinson's disease patients

Highly specialized microtubules in neurons are crucial to both health and disease of the nervous system, and their properties are strictly regulated by different post-translational modifications, including α-Tubulin acetylation. An imbalance in the levels of acetylated α-Tubulin has been reported in experimental models of Parkinson's disease (PD) whereas pharmacological or genetic modulation that leads to increased acetylated α-Tubulin successfully rescues axonal transport defects and inhibits α-Synuclein aggregation. However, the role of acetylation of α-Tubulin in the human nervous system is largely unknown as most studies are based on in vitro evidence. To capture the complexity of the pathological processes in vivo, we analysed post-mortem human brain of PD patients and control subjects. In the brain of PD patients at Braak stage 6, we found a redistribution of acetylated α-Tubulin, which accumulates in the neuronal cell bodies in subcortical structures but not in the cerebral cortex, and decreases in the axonal compartment, both in putamen bundles of fibres and in sudomotor fibres. High-resolution and 3D reconstruction analysis linked acetylated α-Tubulin redistribution to α-Synuclein oligomerization and to phosphorylated Ser 129 α-Synuclein, leading us to propose a model for Lewy body (LB) formation. Finally, in post-mortem human brain, we observed threadlike structures, resembling tunnelling nanotubes that contain α-Synuclein oligomers and are associated with acetylated α-Tubulin enriched neurons. In conclusion, we support the role of acetylated α-Tubulin in PD pathogenesis and LB formation.

Topology recapitulates morphogenesis of neuronal dendrites

Branching allows neurons to make synaptic contacts with large numbers of other neurons, facilitating the high connectivity of nervous systems. Neuronal arbors have geometric properties such as branch lengths and diameters that are optimal in that they maximize signaling speeds while minimizing construction costs. In this work, we asked whether neuronal arbors have topological properties that may also optimize their growth or function. We discovered that for a wide range of invertebrate and vertebrate neurons the distributions of their subtree sizes follow power laws, implying that they are scale invariant. The power-law exponent distinguishes different neuronal cell types. Postsynaptic spines and branchlets perturb scale invariance. Through simulations, we show that the subtree-size distribution depends on the symmetry of the branching rules governing arbor growth and that optimal morphologies are scale invariant. Thus, the subtree-size distribution is a topological property that recapitulates the functional morphology of dendrites.

Brain-derived Tau for Monitoring Brain Injury in Acute Ischemic Stroke

The evolution of infarcts varies widely among patients with acute ischemic stroke (IS) and influences treatment decisions. Neuroimaging is not applicable for frequent monitoring and there is no blood-based biomarker to track ongoing brain injury in acute IS. Here, we examined the utility of plasma brain-derived tau (BD-tau) as a biomarker for brain injury in acute IS. We conducted the prospective, observational Precision Medicine in Stroke [PROMISE] study with serial blood sampling upon hospital admission and at days 2, 3, and 7 in patients with acute ischemic stroke (IS) and for comparison, in patients with stroke mimics (SM). We determined the temporal course of plasma BD-tau, its relation to infarct size and admission imaging-based metrics of brain injury, and its value to predict functional outcome. Upon admission (median time-from-onset, 4.4h), BD-tau levels in IS patients correlated with ASPECTS (ρ=-0.21, P<.0001) and were predictive of final infarct volume (ρ=0.26, P<.0001). In contrast to SM patients, BD-tau levels in IS patients increased from admission (median, 2.9 pg/ml [IQR, 1.8-4.8]) to day 2 (median time-from-onset, 22.7h; median BD-tau, 5.0 pg/ml [IQR, 2.6-10.3]; P<.0001). The rate of change of BD-tau from admission to day 2 was significantly associated with collateral supply (R2=0.10, P<.0001) and infarct progression (ρ=0.58, P<.0001). At day 2, BD-tau was predictive of final infarct volume (ρ=0.59, P<.0001) and showed superior value for predicting the 90-day mRS score compared with final infarct volume. In conclusion, in 502 patients with acute IS, plasma BD-tau was associated with imaging-based metrics of brain injury upon admission, increased within the first 24 hours in correlation with infarct progression, and at 24 hours was superior to final infarct volume in predicting 90-day functional outcome. Further research is needed to determine whether BD-tau assessments can inform decision-making in stroke care.

Drebrin Regulates Collateral Axon Branching in Cortical Layer II/III Somatosensory Neurons

Proper cortical lamination is essential for cognition, learning, and memory. Within the somatosensory cortex, pyramidal excitatory neurons elaborate axon collateral branches in a laminar-specific manner that dictates synaptic partners and overall circuit organization. Here, we leverage both male and female mouse models, single-cell labeling and imaging approaches to identify intrinsic regulators of laminar-specific collateral, also termed interstitial, axon branching. We developed new approaches for the robust, sparse, labeling of Layer II/III pyramidal neurons to obtain single-cell quantitative assessment of axon branch morphologies. We combined these approaches with cell-autonomous loss-of-function (LOF) and overexpression (OE) manipulations in an in vivo candidate screen to identify regulators of cortical neuron axon branch lamination. We identify a role for the cytoskeletal binding protein drebrin (Dbn1) in regulating Layer II/III cortical projection neuron (CPN) collateral axon branching in vitro LOF experiments show that Dbn1 is necessary to suppress the elongation of Layer II/III CPN collateral axon branches within Layer IV, where axon branching by Layer II/III CPNs is normally absent. Conversely, Dbn1 OE produces excess short axonal protrusions reminiscent of nascent axon collaterals that fail to elongate. Structure-function analyses implicate Dbn1S142 phosphorylation and Dbn1 protein domains known to mediate F-actin bundling and microtubule (MT) coupling as necessary for collateral branch initiation upon Dbn1 OE. Taken together, these results contribute to our understanding of the molecular mechanisms that regulate collateral axon branching in excitatory CPNs, a key process in the elaboration of neocortical circuit formation.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Laminar-specific axon targeting is essential for cortical circuit formation. Here, we show that the cytoskeletal protein drebrin (Dbn1) regulates excitatory Layer II/III cortical projection neuron (CPN) collateral axon branching, lending insight into the molecular mechanisms that underlie neocortical laminar-specific innervation. To identify branching patterns of single cortical neurons in vivo, we have developed tools that allow us to obtain detailed images of individual CPN morphologies throughout postnatal development and to manipulate gene expression in these same neurons. Our results showing that Dbn1 regulates CPN interstitial axon branching both in vivo and in vitro may aid in our understanding of how aberrant cortical neuron morphology contributes to dysfunctions observed in autism spectrum disorder and epilepsy.

Recently recycled synaptic vesicles use multi-cytoskeletal transport and differential presynaptic capture probability to establish a retrograde net flux during ISVE in central neurons

Presynapses locally recycle synaptic vesicles to efficiently communicate information. During use and recycling, proteins on the surface of synaptic vesicles break down and become less efficient. In order to maintain efficient presynaptic function and accommodate protein breakdown, new proteins are regularly produced in the soma and trafficked to presynaptic locations where they replace older protein-carrying vesicles. Maintaining a balance of new proteins and older proteins is thus essential for presynaptic maintenance and plasticity. While protein production and turnover have been extensively studied, it is still unclear how older synaptic vesicles are trafficked back to the soma for recycling in order to maintain balance. In the present study, we use a combination of fluorescence microscopy, hippocampal cell cultures, and computational analyses to determine the mechanisms that mediate older synaptic vesicle trafficking back to the soma. We show that synaptic vesicles, which have recently undergone exocytosis, can differentially utilize either the microtubule or the actin cytoskeleton networks. We show that axonally trafficked vesicles traveling with higher speeds utilize the microtubule network and are less likely to be captured by presynapses, while slower vesicles utilize the actin network and are more likely to be captured by presynapses. We also show that retrograde-driven vesicles are less likely to be captured by a neighboring presynapse than anterograde-driven vesicles. We show that the loss of synaptic vesicle with bound molecular motor myosin V is the mechanism that differentiates whether vesicles will utilize the microtubule or actin networks. Finally, we present a theoretical framework of how our experimentally observed retrograde vesicle trafficking bias maintains the balance with previously observed rates of new vesicle trafficking from the soma.

Tunable hydrogel viscoelasticity modulates human neural maturation

Human-induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs) have emerged as a promising in vitro model system for studying neurodevelopment. However, current models remain limited in their ability to incorporate tunable biomechanical signaling cues imparted by the extracellular matrix (ECM). The native brain ECM is viscoelastic and stress-relaxing, exhibiting a time-dependent response to an applied force. To recapitulate the remodelability of the neural ECM, we developed a family of protein-engineered hydrogels that exhibit tunable stress relaxation rates. hiPSC-derived neural progenitor cells (NPCs) encapsulated within these gels underwent relaxation rate-dependent maturation. Specifically, NPCs within hydrogels with faster stress relaxation rates extended longer, more complex neuritic projections, exhibited decreased metabolic activity, and expressed higher levels of genes associated with neural maturation. By inhibiting actin polymerization, we observed decreased neuritic projections and a concomitant decrease in neural maturation gene expression. Together, these results suggest that microenvironmental viscoelasticity is sufficient to bias human NPC maturation.

Polarized microtubule remodeling transforms the morphology of reactive microglia and drives cytokine release

Microglial reactivity is a pathological hallmark in many neurodegenerative diseases. During stimulation, microglia undergo complex morphological changes, including loss of their characteristic ramified morphology, which is routinely used to detect and quantify inflammation in the brain. However, the underlying molecular mechanisms and the relation between microglial morphology and their pathophysiological function are unknown. Here, proteomic profiling of lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-reactive microglia identifies microtubule remodeling pathways as an early factor that drives the morphological change and subsequently controls cytokine responses. We find that LPS-reactive microglia reorganize their microtubules to form a stable and centrosomally-anchored array to facilitate efficient cytokine trafficking and release. We identify cyclin-dependent kinase 1 (Cdk-1) as a critical upstream regulator of microtubule remodeling and morphological change in-vitro and in-situ. Cdk-1 inhibition also rescues tau and amyloid fibril-induced morphology changes. These results demonstrate a critical role for microtubule dynamics and reorganization in microglial reactivity and modulating cytokine-mediated inflammatory responses.

Sculpting the dendritic landscape: Actin, microtubules, and the art of arborization

Dendrites are intricately designed neuronal compartments that play a vital role in the gathering and processing of sensory or synaptic inputs. Their diverse and elaborate structures are distinct features of neuronal organization and function. Central to the generation of these dendritic arbors is the neuronal cytoskeleton. In this review, we delve into the current progress toward our understanding of how dendrite arbors are generated and maintained, focusing on the role of the actin and microtubule cytoskeleton.

A new genetic cause of spastic ataxia: the p.Glu415Lys variant in TUBA4A

Tubulinopathies encompass neurodevelopmental disorders caused by mutations in genes encoding for different isotypes of α- and β-tubulins, the structural components of microtubules. Less frequently, mutations in tubulins may underlie neurodegenerative disorders. In the present study, we report two families, one with 11 affected individuals and the other with a single patient, carrying a novel, likely pathogenic, variant (p. Glu415Lys) in the TUBA4A gene (NM_006000). The phenotype, not previously described, is that of spastic ataxia. Our findings widen the phenotypic and genetic manifestations of TUBA4A variants and add a new type of spastic ataxia to be taken into consideration in the differential diagnosis.

Presynaptic Precursor Vesicles-Cargo, Biogenesis, and Kinesin-Based Transport across Species

The faithful formation and, consequently, function of a synapse requires continuous and tightly controlled delivery of synaptic material. At the presynapse, a variety of proteins with unequal molecular properties are indispensable to compose and control the molecular machinery concerting neurotransmitter release through synaptic vesicle fusion with the presynaptic membrane. As presynaptic proteins are produced mainly in the neuronal soma, they are obliged to traffic along microtubules through the axon to reach the consuming presynapse. This anterograde transport is performed by highly specialised and diverse presynaptic precursor vesicles, membranous organelles able to transport as different proteins such as synaptic vesicle membrane and membrane-associated proteins, cytosolic active zone proteins, ion-channels, and presynaptic membrane proteins, coordinating synaptic vesicle exo- and endocytosis. This review aims to summarise and categorise the diverse and numerous findings describing presynaptic precursor cargo, mode of trafficking, kinesin-based axonal transport and the molecular mechanisms of presynaptic precursor vesicles biogenesis in both vertebrate and invertebrate model systems.

Case report: Structural brain abnormalities in TUBA1A-tubulinopathies: a narrative review

Introduction

Tubulin genes have been related to severe neurological complications and the term "tubulinopathy" now refers to a heterogeneous group of disorders involving an extensive family of tubulin genes with TUBA1A being the most common. A review was carried out on the complex and severe brain abnormalities associated with this genetic anomaly.

Methods

A literature review of the cases of TUBA1A-tubulopathy was performed to investigate the molecular findings linked with cerebral anomalies and to describe the clinical and neuroradiological features related to this genetic disorder.

Results

Clinical manifestations of TUBA1A-tubulinopathy patients are heterogeneous and severe ranging from craniofacial dysmorphism, notable developmental delay, and intellectual delay to early-onset seizures, neuroradiologically associated with complex abnormalities. TUBA1A-tubulinopathy may display various and complex cortical and subcortical malformations.

Discussion

A range of clinical manifestations related to different cerebral structures involved may be observed in patients with TUBA1A-tubulinopathy. Genotype-phenotype correlations are discussed here. Individuals with cortical and subcortical anomalies should be screened also for pathogenic variants in TUBA1A.

Altered microbiota caused by disordered gut motility leads to an overactivation of intestinal immune system in APC1638T mice

Adenomatous polyposis coli (APC) is recognized as an antioncogene related to familial adenomatous polyposis and colorectal cancers. However, APC is a large protein with multiple binding partners, indicating APC has diverse roles besides as a tumor suppressor. We have ever studied the roles of APC by using APC1638T/1638T (APC1638T) mice. Through those studies, we have noticed stools of APC1638T mice were smaller than those of APC+/+ mice and hypothesized there be a disturbance in fecal formation processes in APC1638T mice. The gut motility was morphologically analyzed by immunohistochemical staining of the Auerbach's plexus. Gut microbiota was analyzed by terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism (T-RFLP). IgA concentration in stools was determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). As results, macroscopic findings suggestive of large intestinal dysmotility and microscopic findings of disorganization and inflammation of the plexus were obtained in APC1638T mice. An alteration of microbiota composition, especially increased Bacteroidetes population was observed. Increases in IgA positive cells and dendritic cells in the ileum with high fecal IgA concentration were also confirmed, suggesting over-activation of gut immunity. Our findings will contribute to our understanding of APC's functions in the gastrointestinal motility, and lead to a development of novel therapies for gut dysmotility-related diseases.

Axonal transport during injury on a theoretical axon

Neurodevelopment, plasticity, and cognition are integral with functional directional transport in neuronal axons that occurs along a unique network of discontinuous polar microtubule (MT) bundles. Axonopathies are caused by brain trauma and genetic diseases that perturb or disrupt the axon MT infrastructure and, with it, the dynamic interplay of motor proteins and cargo essential for axonal maintenance and neuronal signaling. The inability to visualize and quantify normal and altered nanoscale spatio-temporal dynamic transport events prevents a full mechanistic understanding of injury, disease progression, and recovery. To address this gap, we generated DyNAMO, a Dynamic Nanoscale Axonal MT Organization model, which is a biologically realistic theoretical axon framework. We use DyNAMO to experimentally simulate multi-kinesin traffic response to focused or distributed tractable injury parameters, which are MT network perturbations affecting MT lengths and multi-MT staggering. We track kinesins with different motility and processivity, as well as their influx rates, in-transit dissociation and reassociation from inter-MT reservoirs, progression, and quantify and spatially represent motor output ratios. DyNAMO demonstrates, in detail, the complex interplay of mixed motor types, crowding, kinesin off/on dissociation and reassociation, and injury consequences of forced intermingling. Stalled forward progression with different injury states is seen as persistent dynamicity of kinesins transiting between MTs and inter-MT reservoirs. DyNAMO analysis provides novel insights and quantification of axonal injury scenarios, including local injury-affected ATP levels, as well as relates these to influences on signaling outputs, including patterns of gating, waves, and pattern switching. The DyNAMO model significantly expands the network of heuristic and mathematical analysis of neuronal functions relevant to axonopathies, diagnostics, and treatment strategies.

Muscleblind-1 interacts with tubulin mRNAs to regulate the microtubule cytoskeleton in C. elegans mechanosensory neurons

Regulation of the microtubule cytoskeleton is crucial for the development and maintenance of neuronal architecture, and recent studies have highlighted the significance of regulated RNA processing in the establishment and maintenance of neural circuits. In a genetic screen conducted using mechanosensory neurons of C. elegans, we identified a mutation in muscleblind-1/mbl-1 as a suppressor of loss of kinesin-13 family microtubule destabilizing factor klp-7. Muscleblind-1(MBL-1) is an RNA-binding protein that regulates the splicing, localization, and stability of RNA. Our findings demonstrate that mbl-1 is required cell-autonomously for axon growth and proper synapse positioning in the posterior lateral microtubule (PLM) neuron. Loss of mbl-1 leads to increased microtubule dynamics and mixed orientation of microtubules in the anterior neurite of PLM. These defects are also accompanied by abnormal axonal transport of the synaptic protein RAB-3 and reduction of gentle touch sensation in mbl-1 mutant. Our data also revealed that mbl-1 is genetically epistatic to mec-7 (β tubulin) and mec-12 (α tubulin) in regulating axon growth. Furthermore, mbl-1 is epistatic to sad-1, an ortholog of BRSK/Brain specific-serine/threonine kinase and a known regulator of synaptic machinery, for synapse formation at the correct location of the PLM neurite. Notably, the immunoprecipitation of MBL-1 resulted in the co-purification of mec-7, mec-12, and sad-1 mRNAs, suggesting a direct interaction between MBL-1 and these transcripts. Additionally, mbl-1 mutants exhibited reduced levels and stability of mec-7 and mec-12 transcripts. Our study establishes a previously unknown link between RNA-binding proteins and cytoskeletal machinery, highlighting their crucial roles in the development and maintenance of the nervous system.

HDAC-6 inhibition ameliorates the early neuropathology in a mouse model of Krabbe disease

Introduction

In Krabbe disease (KD), mutations in β-galactosylceramidase (GALC), a lysosomal enzyme responsible for the catabolism of galactolipids, leads to the accumulation of its substrates galactocerebroside and psychosine. This neurologic condition is characterized by a severe and progressive demyelination together with neuron-autonomous defects and degeneration. Twitcher mice mimic the infantile form of KD, which is the most common form of the human disease. The Twitcher CNS and PNS present demyelination, axonal loss and neuronal defects including decreased levels of acetylated tubulin, decreased microtubule stability and impaired axonal transport.

Methods

We tested whether inhibiting the α-tubulin deacetylase HDAC6 with a specific inhibitor, ACY-738, was able to counteract the early neuropathology and neuronal defects of Twitcher mice.

Results

Our data show that delivery of ACY-738 corrects the low levels of acetylated tubulin in the Twitcher nervous system. Furthermore, it reverts the loss myelinated axons in the sciatic nerve and in the optic nerve when administered from birth to postnatal day 9, suggesting that the drug holds neuroprotective properties. The extended delivery of ACY-738 to Twitcher mice delayed axonal degeneration in the CNS and ameliorated the general presentation of the disease. ACY-738 was effective in rescuing neuronal defects of Twitcher neurons, stabilizing microtubule dynamics and increasing the axonal transport of mitochondria.

Discussion

Overall, our results support that ACY-738 has a neuroprotective effect in KD and should be considered as an add-on therapy combined with strategies targeting metabolic correction.

Integrated regulation of tubulin tyrosination and microtubule stability by human α-tubulin isotypes

Tubulin isotypes are critical for the functions of cellular microtubules, which exhibit different stability and harbor various post-translational modifications. However, how tubulin isotypes determine the activities of regulators for microtubule stability and modifications remains unknown. Here, we show that human α4A-tubulin, a conserved genetically detyrosinated α-tubulin isotype, is a poor substrate for enzymatic tyrosination. To examine the stability of microtubules reconstituted with defined tubulin compositions, we develop a strategy to site-specifically label recombinant human tubulin for single-molecule TIRF microscopy-based in vitro assays. The incorporation of α4A-tubulin into the microtubule lattice stabilizes the polymers from passive and MCAK-stimulated depolymerization. Further characterization reveals that the compositions of α-tubulin isotypes and tyrosination/detyrosination states allow graded control for the microtubule binding and the depolymerization activities of MCAK. Together, our results uncover the tubulin isotype-dependent enzyme activity for an integrated regulation of α-tubulin tyrosination/detyrosination states and microtubule stability, two well-correlated features of cellular microtubules.

The microtubule cytoskeleton of radial glial progenitor cells

A high number of genetic mutations associated with cortical malformations are found in genes coding for microtubule-related factors. This has stimulated research to understand how the various microtubule-based processes are regulated to build a functional cerebral cortex. Here, we focus our review on the radial glial progenitor cells, the stem cells of the developing neocortex, summarizing research mostly performed in rodents and humans. We highlight how the centrosomal and acentrosomal microtubule networks are organized during interphase to support polarized transport and proper attachment of the apical and basal processes. We describe the molecular mechanism for interkinetic nuclear migration (INM), a microtubule-dependent oscillation of the nucleus. Finally, we describe how the mitotic spindle is built to ensure proper chromosome segregation, with a strong focus on factors mutated in microcephaly.

Microtubule remodelling as a driving force of axon guidance and pruning

The establishment of neuronal connectivity relies on the microtubule (MT) cytoskeleton, which provides mechanical support, roads for axonal transport and mediates signalling events. Fine-tuned spatiotemporal regulation of MT functions by tubulin post-translational modifications and MT-associated proteins is critical for the coarse wiring and subsequent refinement of neuronal connectivity. The defective regulation of these processes causes a wide range of neurodevelopmental disorders associated with connectivity defects. This review focuses on recent studies unravelling how MT composition, post-translational modifications and associated proteins influence MT functions in axon guidance and/or pruning to build functional neuronal circuits. We here summarise experimental evidence supporting the key role of this network as a driving force for growth cone steering and branch-specific axon elimination. We further provide a global overview of the MT-interactors that tune developing axon behaviours, with a special emphasis on their emerging versatility in the regulation of MT dynamics/structure. Recent studies establishing the key and highly selective role of the tubulin code in the regulation of MT functions in axon pathfinding are also reported. Finally, our review highlights the emerging molecular links between these MT regulation processes and guidance signals that wire the nervous system.

Moving through the crowd. Where are we at understanding physiological axon growth?

Axon growth enables the rapid wiring of the central nervous system. Understanding this process is a prerequisite to retriggering it under pathological conditions, such as a spinal cord injury, to elicit axon regeneration. The last decades saw progress in understanding the mechanisms underlying axon growth. Most of these studies employed cultured neurons grown on flat surfaces. Only recently studies on axon growth were performed in 3D. In these studies, physiological environments exposed more complex and dynamic aspects of axon development. Here, we describe current views on axon growth and highlight gaps in our knowledge. We discuss how axons interact with the extracellular matrix during development and the role of the growth cone and its cytoskeleton within. Finally, we propose that the time is ripe to study axon growth in a more physiological setting. This will help us uncover the physiologically relevant mechanisms underlying axon growth, and how they can be reactivated to induce axon regeneration.

Tubulin Post-Translational Modifications: The Elusive Roles of Acetylation

Microtubules (MTs), dynamic polymers of α/β-tubulin heterodimers found in all eukaryotes, are involved in cytoplasm spatial organization, intracellular transport, cell polarity, migration and division, and in cilia biology. MTs functional diversity depends on the differential expression of distinct tubulin isotypes and is amplified by a vast number of different post-translational modifications (PTMs). The addition/removal of PTMs to α- or β-tubulins is catalyzed by specific enzymes and allows combinatory patterns largely enriching the distinct biochemical and biophysical properties of MTs, creating a code read by distinct proteins, including microtubule-associated proteins (MAPs), which allow cellular responses. This review is focused on tubulin-acetylation, whose cellular roles continue to generate debate. We travel through the experimental data pointing to α-tubulin Lys40 acetylation role as being a MT stabilizer and a typical PTM of long lived MTs, to the most recent data, suggesting that Lys40 acetylation enhances MT flexibility and alters the mechanical properties of MTs, preventing MTs from mechanical aging characterized by structural damage. Additionally, we discuss the regulation of tubulin acetyltransferases/desacetylases and their impacts on cell physiology. Finally, we analyze how changes in MT acetylation levels have been found to be a general response to stress and how they are associated with several human pathologies.

Local Microtubule and F-Actin Distributions Fully Constrain the Spatial Geometry of Drosophila Sensory Dendritic Arbors

Dendritic morphology underlies the source and processing of neuronal signal inputs. Morphology can be broadly described by two types of geometric characteristics. The first is dendrogram topology, defined by the length and frequency of the arbor branches; the second is spatial embedding, mainly determined by branch angles and straightness. We have previously demonstrated that microtubules and actin filaments are associated with arbor elongation and branching, fully constraining dendrogram topology. Here, we relate the local distribution of these two primary cytoskeletal components with dendritic spatial embedding. We first reconstruct and analyze 167 sensory neurons from the Drosophila larva encompassing multiple cell classes and genotypes. We observe that branches with a higher microtubule concentration tend to deviate less from the direction of their parent branch across all neuron types. Higher microtubule branches are also overall straighter. F-actin displays a similar effect on angular deviation and branch straightness, but not as consistently across all neuron types as microtubule. These observations raise the question as to whether the associations between cytoskeletal distributions and arbor geometry are sufficient constraints to reproduce type-specific dendritic architecture. Therefore, we create a computational model of dendritic morphology purely constrained by the cytoskeletal composition measured from real neurons. The model quantitatively captures both spatial embedding and dendrogram topology across all tested neuron groups. These results suggest a common developmental mechanism regulating diverse morphologies, where the local cytoskeletal distribution can fully specify the overall emergent geometry of dendritic arbors.

Electronic Energy Migration in Microtubules

The repeating arrangement of tubulin dimers confers great mechanical strength to microtubules, which are used as scaffolds for intracellular macromolecular transport in cells and exploited in biohybrid devices. The crystalline order in a microtubule, with lattice constants short enough to allow energy transfer between amino acid chromophores, is similar to synthetic structures designed for light harvesting. After photoexcitation, can these amino acid chromophores transfer excitation energy along the microtubule like a natural or artificial light-harvesting system? Here, we use tryptophan autofluorescence lifetimes to probe energy hopping between aromatic residues in tubulin and microtubules. By studying how the quencher concentration alters tryptophan autofluorescence lifetimes, we demonstrate that electronic energy can diffuse over 6.6 nm in microtubules. We discover that while diffusion lengths are influenced by tubulin polymerization state (free tubulin versus tubulin in the microtubule lattice), they are not significantly altered by the average number of protofilaments (13 versus 14). We also demonstrate that the presence of the anesthetics etomidate and isoflurane reduce exciton diffusion. Energy transport as explained by conventional Förster theory (accommodating for interactions between tryptophan and tyrosine residues) does not sufficiently explain our observations. Our studies indicate that microtubules are, unexpectedly, effective light harvesters.

Insights on the Role of α- and β-Tubulin Isotypes in Early Brain Development

Tubulins are the highly conserved subunit of microtubules which involve in various fundamental functions including brain development. Microtubules help in neuronal proliferation, migration, differentiation, cargo transport along the axons, synapse formation, and many more. Tubulin gene family consisting of multiple isotypes, their differential expression and varied post translational modifications create a whole new level of complexity and diversity in accomplishing manifold neuronal functions. The studies on the relation between tubulin genes and brain development opened a new avenue to understand the role of each tubulin isotype in neurodevelopment. Mutations in tubulin genes are reported to cause brain development defects especially cortical malformations, referred as tubulinopathies. There is an increased need to understand the molecular correlation between various tubulin mutations and the associated brain pathology. Recently, mutations in tubulin isotypes (TUBA1A, TUBB, TUBB1, TUBB2A, TUBB2B, TUBB3, and TUBG1) have been linked to cause various neurodevelopmental defects like lissencephaly, microcephaly, cortical dysplasia, polymicrogyria, schizencephaly, subcortical band heterotopia, periventricular heterotopia, corpus callosum agenesis, and cerebellar hypoplasia. This review summarizes on the microtubule dynamics, their role in neurodevelopment, tubulin isotypes, post translational modifications, and the role of tubulin mutations in causing specific neurodevelopmental defects. A comprehensive list containing all the reported tubulin pathogenic variants associated with brain developmental defects has been prepared to give a bird's eye view on the broad range of tubulin functions.

A review on cyclin-dependent kinase 5: An emerging drug target for neurodegenerative diseases

Cyclin-dependent kinase 5 (CDK5) is the serine/threonine-directed kinase mainly found in the brain and plays a significant role in developing the central nervous system. Recent evidence suggests that CDK5 is activated by specific cyclins regulating its expression and activity. P35 and p39 activate CDK5, and their proteolytic degradation produces p25 and p29, which are stable products involved in the hyperphosphorylation of tau protein, a significant hallmark of various neurological diseases. Numerous high-affinity inhibitors of CDK5 have been designed, and some are marketed drugs. Roscovitine, like other drugs, is being used to minimize neurological symptoms. Here, we performed an extensive literature analysis to highlight the role of CDK5 in neurons, synaptic plasticity, DNA damage repair, cell cycle, etc. We have investigated the structural features of CDK5, and their binding mode with the designed inhibitors is discussed in detail to develop attractive strategies in the therapeutic targeting of CDK5 for neurodegenerative diseases. This review provides deeper mechanistic insights into the therapeutic potential of CDK5 inhibitors and their implications in the clinical management of neurodegenerative diseases.

Local microtubule and F-actin distributions fully determine the spatial geometry of Drosophila sensory dendritic arbors

Dendritic morphology underlies the source and processing of neuronal signal inputs. Morphology can be broadly described by two types of geometric characteristics. The first is dendrogram topology, defined by the length and frequency of the arbor branches; the second is spatial embedding, mainly determined by branch angles and tortuosity. We have previously demonstrated that microtubules and actin filaments are associated with arbor elongation and branching, fully constraining dendrogram topology. Here we relate the local distribution of these two primary cytoskeletal components with dendritic spatial embedding. We first reconstruct and analyze 167 sensory neurons from the Drosophila larva encompassing multiple cell classes and genotypes. We observe that branches with higher microtubule concentration are overall straighter and tend to deviate less from the direction of their parent branch. F-actin displays a similar effect on the angular deviation from the parent branch direction, but its influence on branch tortuosity varies by class and genotype. We then create a computational model of dendritic morphology purely constrained by the cytoskeletal composition imaged from real neurons. The model quantitatively captures both spatial embedding and dendrogram topology across all tested neuron groups. These results suggest a common developmental mechanism regulating diverse morphologies, where the local cytoskeletal distribution can fully specify the overall emergent geometry of dendritic arbors.

Dynamic microtubules slow down during their shrinkage phase

Microtubules are dynamic polymers that undergo stochastic transitions between growing and shrinking phases. The structural and chemical properties of these phases remain poorly understood. The transition from growth to shrinkage, termed catastrophe, is not a first-order reaction but rather a multistep process whose frequency increases with the growth time: the microtubule ages as the older microtubule tip becomes more unstable. Aging shows that the growing phase is not a single state but comprises several substates of increasing instability. To investigate whether the shrinking phase is also multistate, we characterized the kinetics of microtubule shrinkage following catastrophe using an in vitro reconstitution assay with purified tubulins. We found that the shrinkage speed is highly variable across microtubules and that the shrinkage speed of individual microtubules slows down over time by as much as several fold. The shrinkage slowdown was observed in both fluorescently labeled and unlabeled microtubules as well as in microtubules polymerized from tubulin purified from different species, suggesting that the shrinkage slowdown is a general property of microtubules. These results indicate that microtubule shrinkage, like catastrophe, is time dependent and that the shrinking microtubule tip passes through a succession of states of increasing stability. We hypothesize that the shrinkage slowdown is due to destabilizing events that took place during growth, which led to multistep catastrophe. This suggests that the aging associated with growth is also manifested during shrinkage, with the older, more unstable growing tip being associated with a faster depolymerizing shrinking tip.

Hallmarks of neurodegenerative diseases

Decades of research have identified genetic factors and biochemical pathways involved in neurodegenerative diseases (NDDs). We present evidence for the following eight hallmarks of NDD: pathological protein aggregation, synaptic and neuronal network dysfunction, aberrant proteostasis, cytoskeletal abnormalities, altered energy homeostasis, DNA and RNA defects, inflammation, and neuronal cell death. We describe the hallmarks, their biomarkers, and their interactions as a framework to study NDDs using a holistic approach. The framework can serve as a basis for defining pathogenic mechanisms, categorizing different NDDs based on their primary hallmarks, stratifying patients within a specific NDD, and designing multi-targeted, personalized therapies to effectively halt NDDs.

Deciphering the Tubulin Language: Molecular Determinants and Readout Mechanisms of the Tubulin Code in Neurons

Microtubules (MTs) are dynamic components of the cell cytoskeleton involved in several cellular functions, such as structural support, migration and intracellular trafficking. Despite their high similarity, MTs have functional heterogeneity that is generated by the incorporation into the MT lattice of different tubulin gene products and by their post-translational modifications (PTMs). Such regulations, besides modulating the tubulin composition of MTs, create on their surface a "biochemical code" that is translated, through the action of protein effectors, into specific MT-based functions. This code, known as "tubulin code", plays an important role in neuronal cells, whose highly specialized morphologies and activities depend on the correct functioning of the MT cytoskeleton and on its interplay with a myriad of MT-interacting proteins. In recent years, a growing number of mutations in genes encoding for tubulins, MT-interacting proteins and enzymes that post-translationally modify MTs, which are the main players of the tubulin code, have been linked to neurodegenerative processes or abnormalities in neural migration, differentiation and connectivity. Nevertheless, the exact molecular mechanisms through which the cell writes and, downstream, MT-interacting proteins decipher the tubulin code are still largely uncharted. The purpose of this review is to describe the molecular determinants and the readout mechanisms of the tubulin code, and briefly elucidate how they coordinate MT behavior during critical neuronal events, such as neuron migration, maturation and axonal transport.

PEBAT, an Intriguing Neurodegenerative Tubulinopathy Caused by a Novel Homozygous Variant in TBCD: A Case Series and Literature Review

Progressive encephalopathy with brain atrophy and thin corpus callosum (PEBAT) is a severe and rare progressive neurodegenerative disease (OMIM 617913). This condition has been described in individuals with pathogenic variants affecting tubulin-specific chaperone protein D (TBCD), which is responsible for proper folding and assembly of tubulin subunits. Here we describe two unrelated infants from Central America presenting with worsening neuromuscular weakness, respiratory failure, polyneuropathy, and neuroimaging findings of severe cerebral volume loss with thin corpus callosum. These individuals harbored the same homozygous variant of uncertain significance in the TBCD gene on whole exome sequencing (WES). Predicted protein modeling of this variant confirmed disruption of the protein helix at the surface of TBCD. The goal of this report is to emphasize the importance of rapid WES, careful interpretation of uncertain variants, prognostication, and family counseling especially when faced with a neurodegenerative clinical course.

Oxidative stress disrupts the cytoskeleton of spinal motor neurons

BACKGROUND AND AIM

Traumatic spinal cord injury (SCI) is a common and devastating central nervous disease, the treatment of which faces many challenges to the medical community and society as a whole. Treatment measures based on oxidative stress of spinal motor neurons during SCI are expected to help restore biological functions of neurons under injury conditions. However, to date, there are no systematic reports regarding oxidative stress on spinal motor neuron injury. Our aim is to better understand and explain the influences and mechanisms of oxidative stress on spinal motor neurons during SCI.

METHODS

We first exposed VSC4.1 motor neurons to hydrogen peroxide (H₂ O₂ ) and evaluated the effects on cell viability, morphology, cycling, and apoptosis, with an emphasis on the changes to the cytoskeleton and the effect of N-acetyl-l-cysteine (NAC) on these changes. Then, we investigated the effects of NAC on these cytoskeletal changes in vitro and in vivo.

RESULTS

We found that H₂ O₂ caused severe damage to the normal cytoskeleton, leading to a reduction in neurite length and number, rearrangement of the actin cytoskeleton, and disorder of the microtubules and neurofilaments in VSC4.1. Importantly, NAC attenuated the oxidative damage of spinal motor neurons in vitro and in vivo, promoting the recovery of hindlimb motor ability in mice with SCI at the early stage of injury.

CONCLUSION

This study shows that oxidative stress plays an important role in the cytoskeleton destruction of spinal motor neurons in SCI, and treatment of SCI on this basis is a promising strategy. These findings will help to elucidate the role of oxidative stress in spinal motor neuron injury in SCI and provide references for further research into the study of the pathology and underlying mechanism of SCI.

Second harmonic generation microscopy: a powerful tool for bio-imaging

Second harmonic generation (SHG) microscopy is an important optical imaging technique in a variety of applications. This article describes the history and physical principles of SHG microscopy and its more advanced variants, as well as their strengths and weaknesses in biomedical applications. It also provides an overview of SHG and advanced SHG imaging in neuroscience and microtubule imaging and how these methods can aid in understanding microtubule formation, structuration, and involvement in neuronal function. Finally, we offer a perspective on the future of these methods and how technological advancements can help make SHG microscopy a more widely adopted imaging technique.