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Yamamoto K, Chen QY, Zhou Z, Kobayashi M, Zhuo M. Cortical nitric oxide required for presynaptic long-term potentiation in the insular cortex. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2024; 379:20230475. [PMID: 38853563 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2023.0475] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2023] [Accepted: 03/28/2024] [Indexed: 06/11/2024] Open
Abstract
Nitric oxide (NO) is a key diffusible messenger in the mammalian brain. It has been proposed that NO may diffuse retrogradely into presynaptic terminals, contributing to the induction of hippocampal long-term potentiation (LTP). Here, we present novel evidence that NO is required for kainate receptor (KAR)-dependent presynaptic form of LTP (pre-LTP) in the adult insular cortex (IC). In the IC, we found that inhibition of NO synthase erased the maintenance of pre-LTP, while the induction of pre-LTP required the activation of KAR. Furthermore, NO is essential for pre-LTP induced between two pyramidal cells in the IC using the double patch-clamp recording. These results suggest that NO is required for homosynaptic pre-LTP in the IC. Our results present strong evidence for the critical roles of NO in pre-LTP in the IC. This article is part of a discussion meeting issue 'Long-term potentiation: 50 years on'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kiyofumi Yamamoto
- Department of Pharmacology, Nihon University School of Dentistry, 1-8-13 Kanda-Surugadai , Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 101-8310, Japan
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Medical Science Building, 1 King's College Circle , Toronto, Ontario M5S 1A8, Canada
| | - Qi-Yu Chen
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Medical Science Building, 1 King's College Circle , Toronto, Ontario M5S 1A8, Canada
- Zhuomin Institute for Brain Research , Qingdao 266000, People's Republic of China
- CAS Key Laboratory of Brain Connectome and Manipulation, Interdisciplinary Center for Brain Information, The Brain Cognition and Brain Disease Institute, Shenzhen Institute of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences Shenzhen Institute of Advanced Technology , Shenzhen 518055, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhaoxiang Zhou
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Medical Science Building, 1 King's College Circle , Toronto, Ontario M5S 1A8, Canada
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University , Guangzhou 510130, People's Republic of China
| | - Masayuki Kobayashi
- Department of Pharmacology, Nihon University School of Dentistry, 1-8-13 Kanda-Surugadai , Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 101-8310, Japan
| | - Min Zhuo
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Medical Science Building, 1 King's College Circle , Toronto, Ontario M5S 1A8, Canada
- Zhuomin Institute for Brain Research , Qingdao 266000, People's Republic of China
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University , Guangzhou 510130, People's Republic of China
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Botterill JJ, Khlaifia A, Appings R, Wilkin J, Violi F, Premachandran H, Cruz-Sanchez A, Canella AE, Patel A, Zaidi SD, Arruda-Carvalho M. Dorsal peduncular cortex activity modulates affective behavior and fear extinction in mice. Neuropsychopharmacology 2024; 49:993-1006. [PMID: 38233571 PMCID: PMC11039686 DOI: 10.1038/s41386-024-01795-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2023] [Revised: 12/27/2023] [Accepted: 12/28/2023] [Indexed: 01/19/2024]
Abstract
The medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) is critical to cognitive and emotional function and underlies many neuropsychiatric disorders, including mood, fear and anxiety disorders. In rodents, disruption of mPFC activity affects anxiety- and depression-like behavior, with specialized contributions from its subdivisions. The rodent mPFC is divided into the dorsomedial prefrontal cortex (dmPFC), spanning the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and dorsal prelimbic cortex (PL), and the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC), which includes the ventral PL, infralimbic cortex (IL), and in some studies the dorsal peduncular cortex (DP) and dorsal tenia tecta (DTT). The DP/DTT have recently been implicated in the regulation of stress-induced sympathetic responses via projections to the hypothalamus. While many studies implicate the PL and IL in anxiety-, depression-like and fear behavior, the contribution of the DP/DTT to affective and emotional behavior remains unknown. Here, we used chemogenetics and optogenetics to bidirectionally modulate DP/DTT activity and examine its effects on affective behaviors, fear and stress responses in C57BL/6J mice. Acute chemogenetic activation of DP/DTT significantly increased anxiety-like behavior in the open field and elevated plus maze tests, as well as passive coping in the tail suspension test. DP/DTT activation also led to an increase in serum corticosterone levels and facilitated auditory fear extinction learning and retrieval. Activation of DP/DTT projections to the dorsomedial hypothalamus (DMH) acutely decreased freezing at baseline and during extinction learning, but did not alter affective behavior. These findings point to the DP/DTT as a new regulator of affective behavior and fear extinction in mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justin J Botterill
- Department of Psychology, University of Toronto Scarborough, Toronto, ON, M1C1A4, Canada
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology, and Pharmacology, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, S7N 5E5, Canada
| | - Abdessattar Khlaifia
- Department of Psychology, University of Toronto Scarborough, Toronto, ON, M1C1A4, Canada
| | - Ryan Appings
- Department of Psychology, University of Toronto Scarborough, Toronto, ON, M1C1A4, Canada
| | - Jennifer Wilkin
- Department of Psychology, University of Toronto Scarborough, Toronto, ON, M1C1A4, Canada
| | - Francesca Violi
- Department of Psychology, University of Toronto Scarborough, Toronto, ON, M1C1A4, Canada
| | - Hanista Premachandran
- Department of Psychology, University of Toronto Scarborough, Toronto, ON, M1C1A4, Canada
| | - Arely Cruz-Sanchez
- Department of Psychology, University of Toronto Scarborough, Toronto, ON, M1C1A4, Canada
- Department of Cell and Systems Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, M5S3G5, Canada
| | - Anna Elisabete Canella
- Department of Psychology, University of Toronto Scarborough, Toronto, ON, M1C1A4, Canada
| | - Ashutosh Patel
- Department of Psychology, University of Toronto Scarborough, Toronto, ON, M1C1A4, Canada
| | - S Danyal Zaidi
- Department of Psychology, University of Toronto Scarborough, Toronto, ON, M1C1A4, Canada
| | - Maithe Arruda-Carvalho
- Department of Psychology, University of Toronto Scarborough, Toronto, ON, M1C1A4, Canada.
- Department of Cell and Systems Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, M5S3G5, Canada.
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3
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Xie RG, Xu GY, Wu SX, Luo C. Presynaptic glutamate receptors in nociception. Pharmacol Ther 2023; 251:108539. [PMID: 37783347 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2023.108539] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2023] [Revised: 08/19/2023] [Accepted: 09/25/2023] [Indexed: 10/04/2023]
Abstract
Chronic pain is a frequent, distressing and poorly understood health problem. Plasticity of synaptic transmission in the nociceptive pathways after inflammation or injury is assumed to be an important cellular basis for chronic, pathological pain. Glutamate serves as the main excitatory neurotransmitter at key synapses in the somatosensory nociceptive pathways, in which it acts on both ionotropic and metabotropic glutamate receptors. Although conventionally postsynaptic, compelling anatomical and physiological evidence demonstrates the presence of presynaptic glutamate receptors in the nociceptive pathways. Presynaptic glutamate receptors play crucial roles in nociceptive synaptic transmission and plasticity. They modulate presynaptic neurotransmitter release and synaptic plasticity, which in turn regulates pain sensitization. In this review, we summarize the latest understanding of the expression of presynaptic glutamate receptors in the nociceptive pathways, and how they contribute to nociceptive information processing and pain hypersensitivity associated with inflammation / injury. We uncover the cellular and molecular mechanisms of presynaptic glutamate receptors in shaping synaptic transmission and plasticity to mediate pain chronicity, which may provide therapeutic approaches for treatment of chronic pain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rou-Gang Xie
- Department of Neurobiology, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an 710032, China.
| | - Guang-Yin Xu
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Neuropsychiatric Diseases, Institute of Neuroscience, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China
| | - Sheng-Xi Wu
- Department of Neurobiology, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an 710032, China.
| | - Ceng Luo
- Department of Neurobiology, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an 710032, China.
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Shi T, Feng S, Zhou Z, Li F, Fu Y, Zhou W. Stress-altering anterior insular cortex activity affects risk decision-making behavior in mice of different sexes. Front Cell Neurosci 2023; 17:1094808. [PMID: 36761354 PMCID: PMC9902351 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2023.1094808] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2022] [Accepted: 01/03/2023] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Stress can affect people's judgment and make them take risky decisions. Abnormal decision-making behavior is a core symptom of psychiatric disorders, such as anxiety, depression, and substance abuse. However, the neuronal mechanisms underlying such impairments are largely unknown. The anterior insular cortex (AIC) is a crucial structure to integrate sensory information with emotional and motivational states. These properties suggest that AIC can influence a subjective prediction in decision-making. In this study, we demonstrated that stressed mice prefer to take more risky choices than control mice using a gambling test. Manipulating the neural activity of AIC or selectively inhibiting the AIC-BLA pathway with chemogenetic intervention resulted in alterations in risk decision-making in mice. Different sexes may have different decision-making strategies in risky situations. Endogenous estrogen levels affect emotional cognition by modulating the stress system function in women. We observed decision-making behavior in mice of different sexes with or without stress experience. The result showed that female mice did not change their choice strategy with increasing risk/reward probability and performed a lower risk preference than male mice after stress. Using the pharmacological method, we bilaterally injected an estrogen receptor (ER) antagonist that resulted in more risky behavior and decreased synaptic plasticity in the AIC of female mice. Our study suggested that the AIC is a crucial region involved in stress-induced alteration of decision-making, and estrogen in the AIC may regulate decision-making behavior by regulating synaptic plasticity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tianyao Shi
- State Key Laboratory of Toxicology and Medical Countermeasures, Beijing Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Beijing, China,*Correspondence: Tianyao Shi,
| | - Shufang Feng
- Department of Medical Psychology, The Third Medical Center, Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Zhonglin Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Toxicology and Medical Countermeasures, Beijing Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Beijing, China
| | - Fengan Li
- State Key Laboratory of Toxicology and Medical Countermeasures, Beijing Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Beijing, China,Department of Pharmacy, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, China
| | - Yuan Fu
- State Key Laboratory of Toxicology and Medical Countermeasures, Beijing Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Beijing, China,Department of Pharmacy, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, China
| | - Wenxia Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Toxicology and Medical Countermeasures, Beijing Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Beijing, China,Wenxia Zhou,
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Focusing on the Emerging Role of Kainate Receptors in the Dorsal Cochlear Nucleus (DCN) and Cerebellum. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24021718. [PMID: 36675230 PMCID: PMC9865595 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24021718] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2022] [Revised: 12/31/2022] [Accepted: 01/04/2023] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Mammals have a dorsal cochlear nucleus (DCN), which is thought to be a cerebellum-like structure with similar features in terms of structure and microcircuitry to the cerebellum. Both the DCN and cerebellum perform their functions depending on synaptic and neuronal networks mediated by various glutamate receptors. Kainate receptors (KARs) are one class of the glutamate receptor family and are strongly expressed in the hippocampus, the cerebellum, and cerebellum-like structures. The cellular distribution and the potential role of KARs in the hippocampus have been extensively investigated. However, the cellular distribution and the potential role of KARs in cerebellum-like structures, including the DCN and cerebellum, are poorly understood. In this review, we summarize the similarity between the DCN and cerebellum at the levels of structure, circuitry, and cell type as well as the investigations referring to the expression patterns of KARs in the DCN and cerebellum according to previous studies. Recent studies on the role of KARs have shown that KARs mediate a bidirectional modulatory effect at parallel fiber (PF)-Purkinje cell (PC) synapses in the cerebellum, implying insights into their roles in cerebellum-like structures, including the DCN, that remain to be explored in the coming years.
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Shi W, Fu Y, Shi T, Zhou W. Different Synaptic Plasticity After Physiological and Psychological Stress in the Anterior Insular Cortex in an Observational Fear Mouse Model. Front Synaptic Neurosci 2022; 14:851015. [PMID: 35645764 PMCID: PMC9132225 DOI: 10.3389/fnsyn.2022.851015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2022] [Accepted: 03/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) can be triggered not only in people who have personally experienced traumatic events but also in those who witness them. Physiological and psychological stress can have different effects on neural activity, but little is known about the underlying mechanisms. There is ample evidence that the insular cortex, especially the anterior insular cortex (aIC), is critical to both the sensory and emotional experience of pain. It is therefore worthwhile to explore the effects of direct and indirect stress on the synaptic plasticity of the aIC. Here, we used a mouse model of observational fear to mimic direct suffering (Demonstrator, DM) and witnessing (Observer, OB) of traumatic events. After observational fear training, using a 64-channel recording system, we showed that both DM and OB mice exhibited a decreased ratio of paired-pulse with intervals of 50 ms in the superficial layers of the aIC but not in the deep layers. We found that theta-burst stimulation (TBS)–induced long-term potentiation (LTP) in OB mice was significantly higher than in DM mice, and the recruitment of synaptic responses occurred only in OB mice. Compared with naive mice, OB mice showed stronger recruitment and higher amplitude in the superficial layers of the aIC. We also used low-frequency stimulation (LFS) to induce long-term depression (LTD). OB mice showed greater LTD in both the superficial and deep layers of the aIC than naive mice, but no significant difference was found between OB and DM mice. These results provide insights into the changes in synaptic plasticity in the aIC after physiological and psychological stress, and suggest that different types of stress may have different mechanisms. Furthermore, identification of the possible causes of the differences in stress could help treat stress-related disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenlong Shi
- State Key Laboratory of Toxicology and Medical Countermeasures, Beijing Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Beijing, China
| | - Yuan Fu
- State Key Laboratory of Toxicology and Medical Countermeasures, Beijing Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Beijing, China
- Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, China
| | - Tianyao Shi
- State Key Laboratory of Toxicology and Medical Countermeasures, Beijing Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Beijing, China
- *Correspondence: Tianyao Shi,
| | - Wenxia Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Toxicology and Medical Countermeasures, Beijing Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Beijing, China
- Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, China
- Wenxia Zhou,
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7
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Ma H, Xun G, Zhang R, Yang X, Cao Y. Correlation between GRIK2 rs6922753, rs2227283 polymorphism and aggressive behaviors with Bipolar Mania in the Chinese Han population. Brain Behav 2019; 9:e01449. [PMID: 31631587 PMCID: PMC6851809 DOI: 10.1002/brb3.1449] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2019] [Revised: 09/15/2019] [Accepted: 09/21/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Animal studies have shown that glutamate receptor ionotropic kainate 2 (GRIK2) gene knockout mice are more impulsive and aggressive. This study aims to verify whether the rs6922753 and rs2227283 polymorphisms of the GRIK2 gene are associated with both aggressive behavior and bipolar mania in the Chinese Han population. METHODS Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was applied in the genotype rs6922753 and rs2227283 polymorphisms of the GRIK2 gene in 201 bipolar manic patients with aggressive behaviors, 198 bipolar manic patients without aggressive behaviors, and 132 healthy controls. The Modified Overt Aggression Scale (MOAS) was used to evaluate aggressive behavior in patients with bipolar mania. RESULTS No correlation was found between aggressive behavior and the rs6922753 polymorphism in the three groups. The A/A genotype and A allele of the rs2227283 polymorphism were found significantly more frequently in patients with aggressive behavior than in healthy controls (p = .004 and p = .013, respectively) and in patients with nonaggressive behavior (p = .002 and p = .018, respectively). The A/A genotype and A allele were associated with an increased risk of aggressive behavior. CONCLUSION This study suggests that the rs2227283 polymorphism of the GRIK2 gene is related to aggressive behaviors in bipolar manic patients and that the A/A genotype and A allele may increase the risk of the aggressive behavior in bipolar manic patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haibo Ma
- Department of PsychiatryShandong Mental Health CenterJinanChina
| | - Guanglei Xun
- Department of PsychiatryShandong Mental Health CenterJinanChina
| | - Renyun Zhang
- Department of PsychiatryShandong Mental Health CenterJinanChina
| | - Xiaohua Yang
- Department of PsychiatryShandong Mental Health CenterJinanChina
| | - Yu Cao
- Department of PsychiatryShandong Mental Health CenterJinanChina
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Wang H, Zhao P, Huang Q, Chi Y, Dong S, Fan J. Bisphenol-A induces neurodegeneration through disturbance of intracellular calcium homeostasis in human embryonic stem cells-derived cortical neurons. CHEMOSPHERE 2019; 229:618-630. [PMID: 31102917 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.04.099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2019] [Revised: 03/30/2019] [Accepted: 04/13/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Bisphenol-A (BPA) is a representative exogenous endocrine disruptor, which is extensively composed in plastic products. Due to the capability of passing through the blood-brain barrier, evidence has linked BPA exposure with multiple neuropsychological dysfunctions, neurobehavioral disorders and neurodegenerative diseases. However, the underlying mechanism by which BPA induces neurodegeneration still remains unclear. Our study used human embryonic stem cells-derived human cortical neurons (hCNs) as a cellular model to investigate the adverse neurotoxic effects of BPA. hCNs were treated with 0, 0.1, 1 and 10 μM BPA for 14 days. Impacts of BPA exposure on cell morphology, cell viability and neural marker (MAP2) were measured for evaluating the neurodegeneration. The intracellular calcium homeostasis, reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation and organelle functions were also taken into consideration. Results revealed that chronic exposure of BPA damaged the neural morphology, induced neuronal apoptosis and decreased MAP2 expression at the level of both transcription and translation. The intracellular calcium levels were elevated in hCNs after BPA exposure through NMDARs-nNOS-PSD-95 mediating. Meanwhile, BPA led to oxidative stress by raising the ROS generation and attenuating the antioxidant defense in hCNs. Furthermore, BPA triggered ER stress and increased cytochrome c release by impairing the mitochondrial function. Ultimately, BPA triggered the cell apoptosis by regulating Bcl-2 family and caspase-dependent signaling pathway. Taken together, BPA exerted neurotoxic effects on hCNs by eliciting apoptosis, which might due to the intracellular calcium homeostasis perturbation and cell organellar dysfunction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongou Wang
- Center for Excellence in Regional Atmospheric Environment, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen, 361021, China; Key Laboratory of Urban Environment and Health, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen, 361021, China; College of Resources and Environment, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Peiqiang Zhao
- Center for Excellence in Regional Atmospheric Environment, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen, 361021, China; Key Laboratory of Urban Environment and Health, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen, 361021, China; College of Resources and Environment, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Qiansheng Huang
- Center for Excellence in Regional Atmospheric Environment, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen, 361021, China; Key Laboratory of Urban Environment and Health, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen, 361021, China
| | - Yulang Chi
- Center for Excellence in Regional Atmospheric Environment, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen, 361021, China; Key Laboratory of Urban Environment and Health, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen, 361021, China.
| | - Sijun Dong
- Center for Excellence in Regional Atmospheric Environment, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen, 361021, China; Key Laboratory of Urban Environment and Health, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen, 361021, China.
| | - Jianglin Fan
- Department of Molecular Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, University of Yamanashi, Yamanashi, Japan
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Weston CSE. Four Social Brain Regions, Their Dysfunctions, and Sequelae, Extensively Explain Autism Spectrum Disorder Symptomatology. Brain Sci 2019; 9:E130. [PMID: 31167459 PMCID: PMC6627615 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci9060130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2019] [Revised: 05/31/2019] [Accepted: 06/03/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a challenging neurodevelopmental disorder with symptoms in social, language, sensory, motor, cognitive, emotional, repetitive behavior, and self-sufficient living domains. The important research question examined is the elucidation of the pathogenic neurocircuitry that underlies ASD symptomatology in all its richness and heterogeneity. The presented model builds on earlier social brain research, and hypothesizes that four social brain regions largely drive ASD symptomatology: amygdala, orbitofrontal cortex (OFC), temporoparietal cortex (TPC), and insula. The amygdala's contributions to ASD largely derive from its major involvement in fine-grained intangible knowledge representations and high-level guidance of gaze. In addition, disrupted brain regions can drive disturbance of strongly interconnected brain regions to produce further symptoms. These and related effects are proposed to underlie abnormalities of the visual cortex, inferior frontal gyrus (IFG), caudate nucleus, and hippocampus as well as associated symptoms. The model is supported by neuroimaging, neuropsychological, neuroanatomical, cellular, physiological, and behavioral evidence. Collectively, the model proposes a novel, parsimonious, and empirically testable account of the pathogenic neurocircuitry of ASD, an extensive account of its symptomatology, a novel physiological biomarker with potential for earlier diagnosis, and novel experiments to further elucidate the mechanisms of brain abnormalities and symptomatology in ASD.
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