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Vitkova V, Ristori D, Cheron G, Bazan A, Cebolla AM. Long-lasting negativity in the left motoric brain structures during word memory inhibition in the Think/No-Think paradigm. Sci Rep 2024; 14:10907. [PMID: 38740808 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-60378-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2023] [Accepted: 04/22/2024] [Indexed: 05/16/2024] Open
Abstract
In this study, we investigated the electrical brain responses in a high-density EEG array (64 electrodes) elicited specifically by the word memory cue in the Think/No-Think paradigm in 46 participants. In a first step, we corroborated previous findings demonstrating sustained and reduced brain electrical frontal and parietal late potentials elicited by memory cues following the No-Think (NT) instructions as compared to the Think (T) instructions. The topographical analysis revealed that such reduction was significant 1000 ms after memory cue onset and that it was long-lasting for 1000 ms. In a second step, we estimated the underlying brain generators with a distributed method (swLORETA) which does not preconceive any localization in the gray matter. This method revealed that the cognitive process related to the inhibition of memory retrieval involved classical motoric cerebral structures with the left primary motor cortex (M1, BA4), thalamus, and premotor cortex (BA6). Also, the right frontal-polar cortex was involved in the T condition which we interpreted as an indication of its role in the maintaining of a cognitive set during remembering, by the selection of one cognitive mode of processing, Think, over the other, No-Think, across extended periods of time, as it might be necessary for the successful execution of the Think/No-Think task.
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Affiliation(s)
- Viktoriya Vitkova
- Laboratory of Neurophysiology and Movement Biomechanics, Université Libre de Bruxelles, Brussels, Belgium
- InterPsy Laboratory, Université de Lorraine, Nancy, France
| | - Dominique Ristori
- Laboratory of Neurophysiology and Movement Biomechanics, Université Libre de Bruxelles, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Guy Cheron
- Laboratory of Neurophysiology and Movement Biomechanics, Université Libre de Bruxelles, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Ariane Bazan
- Laboratory of Neurophysiology and Movement Biomechanics, Université Libre de Bruxelles, Brussels, Belgium
- InterPsy Laboratory, Université de Lorraine, Nancy, France
| | - Ana Maria Cebolla
- Laboratory of Neurophysiology and Movement Biomechanics, Université Libre de Bruxelles, Brussels, Belgium.
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2
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Nardo D, Anderson MC. Everything you ever wanted to know about the Think/No-Think task, but forgot to ask. Behav Res Methods 2024; 56:3831-3860. [PMID: 38379115 PMCID: PMC11133138 DOI: 10.3758/s13428-024-02349-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/22/2024] [Indexed: 02/22/2024]
Abstract
The Think/No-Think (TNT) task has just celebrated 20 years since its inception, and its use has been growing as a tool to investigate the mechanisms underlying memory control and its neural underpinnings. Here, we present a theoretical and practical guide for designing, implementing, and running TNT studies. For this purpose, we provide a step-by-step description of the structure of the TNT task, methodological choices that can be made, parameters that can be chosen, instruments available, aspects to be aware of, systematic information about how to run a study and analyze the data. Importantly, we provide a TNT training package (as Supplementary Material), that is, a series of multimedia materials (e.g., tutorial videos, informative HTML pages, MATLAB code to run experiments, questionnaires, scoring sheets, etc.) to complement this method paper and facilitate a deeper understanding of the TNT task, its rationale, and how to set it up in practice. Given the recent discussion about the replication crisis in the behavioral sciences, we hope that this contribution will increase standardization, reliability, and replicability across laboratories.
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Affiliation(s)
- Davide Nardo
- Department of Education, University of Roma Tre, Rome, Italy.
- MRC Cognition and Brain Sciences Unit, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.
| | - Michael C Anderson
- MRC Cognition and Brain Sciences Unit, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
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3
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Cui K, Zhao J, Li R, Gao Y, Gao X. Higher visceral adipose tissue is associated with decreased memory suppression ability on food-related thoughts: A 1-year prospective ERP study. Appetite 2023; 191:107048. [PMID: 37804604 DOI: 10.1016/j.appet.2023.107048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2023] [Revised: 09/13/2023] [Accepted: 09/18/2023] [Indexed: 10/09/2023]
Abstract
Memory about food and eating is crucial in regulating appetite and eating behaviors. Successfully stopping vivid imagination of delicious food could help reduce food craving and thus reduce the possibility of further intake. Memory inhibition is a cognitive process that involves intentional suppression of certain memories coming to consciousness. Successful memory suppression derives from inhibitory control. Although considerable work has consistently observed the impairment in motor or response inhibitory control among individuals with obesity, there has been a lack of investigation into the influence of bodyweight status on memory inhibitory control. To fill this gap, current study investigated behavioral and neurophysiological correlates of memory suppression in young women. Using Think/No-Think task and event-related potentials among 47 females, we found that participants with higher visceral adipose tissue (VAT) showed a tendency towards decreased suppression ability for memories related to food but not memories related to nonfood items. In depth analysis showed that decrease in the differences in P2 amplitudes between suppression vs. retrieval of food-related memories mediated the impairment of suppression ability by high VAT. We then tested whether individual differences in memory suppression ability as well as ERP correlates predicted future BMI or VAT change over 1-year follow-up. Results showed that P2 amplitudes when retrieving food-related memory could predict VAT change at 1-year follow-up among participants with healthy BMI. These observations suggest a hypersensitivity inference hypothesis underlying memory control impairments. To be specific, deficits in memory suppression may be in part resulted from elevated sensitivity to the cues coupling with food-related memory. It extends previous studies of memory suppression with food rewards and provides the first evidence to help understand the relationship between inhibitory control on food-related memory and obesity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ke Cui
- Faculty of Psychology, Southwest University, Chongqing, 400715, China
| | - Jia Zhao
- Faculty of Psychology, Southwest University, Chongqing, 400715, China; Key Laboratory of Cognition and Personality (Ministry of Education), Southwest University, Chongqing, 400715, China
| | - RuoNan Li
- Faculty of Psychology, Southwest University, Chongqing, 400715, China; Key Laboratory of Cognition and Personality (Ministry of Education), Southwest University, Chongqing, 400715, China
| | - Yuan Gao
- Faculty of Psychology, Southwest University, Chongqing, 400715, China
| | - Xiao Gao
- Faculty of Psychology, Southwest University, Chongqing, 400715, China; Key Laboratory of Cognition and Personality (Ministry of Education), Southwest University, Chongqing, 400715, China.
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4
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Zhu Y, Zeng Y, Ren J, Zhang L, Chen C, Fernandez G, Qin S. Emotional learning retroactively promotes memory integration through rapid neural reactivation and reorganization. eLife 2022; 11:e60190. [PMID: 36476501 PMCID: PMC9815824 DOI: 10.7554/elife.60190] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2020] [Accepted: 12/06/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Neutral events preceding emotional experiences can be better remembered, likely by assigning them as significant to guide possible use in future. Yet, the neurobiological mechanisms of how emotional learning enhances memory for past mundane events remain unclear. By two behavioral studies and one functional magnetic resonance imaging study with an adapted sensory preconditioning paradigm, we show rapid neural reactivation and connectivity changes underlying emotion-charged retroactive memory enhancement. Behaviorally, emotional learning retroactively enhanced initial memory for neutral associations across the three studies. Neurally, emotional learning potentiated trial-specific reactivation of overlapping neural traces in the hippocampus and stimulus-relevant neocortex. It further induced rapid hippocampal-neocortical functional reorganization supporting such retroactive memory benefit, as characterized by enhanced hippocampal-neocortical coupling modulated by the amygdala during emotional learning, and a shift of hippocampal connectivity from stimulus-relevant neocortex to distributed transmodal prefrontal-parietal areas at post-learning rests. Together, emotional learning retroactively promotes memory integration for past neutral events through stimulating trial-specific reactivation of overlapping representations and reorganization of associated memories into an integrated network to foster its priority for future use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yannan Zhu
- State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning & IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Beijing Normal UniversityBeijingChina
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Brain Imaging and Connectomics, Beijing Normal UniversityBeijingChina
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University Medical CenterNijmegenNetherlands
| | - Yimeng Zeng
- State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning & IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Beijing Normal UniversityBeijingChina
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Brain Imaging and Connectomics, Beijing Normal UniversityBeijingChina
| | - Jingyuan Ren
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University Medical CenterNijmegenNetherlands
| | - Lingke Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning & IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Beijing Normal UniversityBeijingChina
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Brain Imaging and Connectomics, Beijing Normal UniversityBeijingChina
| | - Changming Chen
- School of Education, Chongqing Normal UniversityChongqingChina
| | - Guillen Fernandez
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University Medical CenterNijmegenNetherlands
| | - Shaozheng Qin
- State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning & IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Beijing Normal UniversityBeijingChina
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Brain Imaging and Connectomics, Beijing Normal UniversityBeijingChina
- Chinese Institute for Brain ResearchBeijingChina
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5
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Göbel K, Niessen C, Seufert S, Schmid U. Explanatory machine learning for justified trust in human-AI collaboration: Experiments on file deletion recommendations. Front Artif Intell 2022; 5:919534. [PMID: 36504690 PMCID: PMC9727201 DOI: 10.3389/frai.2022.919534] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2022] [Accepted: 10/31/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
In the digital age, saving and accumulating large amounts of digital data is a common phenomenon. However, saving does not only consume energy, but may also cause information overload and prevent people from staying focused and working effectively. We present and systematically examine an explanatory AI system (Dare2Del), which supports individuals to delete irrelevant digital objects. To give recommendations for the optimization of related human-computer interactions, we vary different design features (explanations, familiarity, verifiability) within and across three experiments (N 1 = 61, N 2 = 33, N 3= 73). Moreover, building on the concept of distributed cognition, we check possible cross-connections between external (digital) and internal (human) memory. Specifically, we examine whether deleting external files also contributes to human forgetting of the related mental representations. Multilevel modeling results show the importance of presenting explanations for the acceptance of deleting suggestions in all three experiments, but also point to the need of their verifiability to generate trust in the system. However, we did not find clear evidence that deleting computer files contributes to human forgetting of the related memories. Based on our findings, we provide basic recommendations for the design of AI systems that can help to reduce the burden on people and the digital environment, and suggest directions for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyra Göbel
- Department of Psychology, Work and Organizational Psychology Unit, Friedrich-Alexander University of Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany,*Correspondence: Kyra Göbel
| | - Cornelia Niessen
- Department of Psychology, Work and Organizational Psychology Unit, Friedrich-Alexander University of Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Sebastian Seufert
- Information Systems and Applied Computer Science, University of Bamberg, Bamberg, Germany
| | - Ute Schmid
- Information Systems and Applied Computer Science, University of Bamberg, Bamberg, Germany
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Chen S, Mao X, Wu Y. Can't stop thinking: The role of cognitive control in suppression-induced forgetting. Neuropsychologia 2022; 172:108274. [PMID: 35623449 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2022.108274] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2021] [Revised: 04/28/2022] [Accepted: 05/19/2022] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
The ability to control unwanted memories is essential for emotional regulation and maintaining mental health. Previous evidence indicates that suppressing retrieval, which recruits executive control mechanisms to prevent unwanted memories entering consciousness, can cause forgetting, termed suppression-induced forgetting (SIF). Because these executive mechanisms involve multiple mental operations, their effects may be limited by individuals' capacity limitation of cognitive control. Here, we tested the hypothesis that cognitive control capacity (CCC, estimated by the backward masking majority function task) is an important factor that predicts SIF. Participants were assigned to two groups based on the median CCC and performed the think/no-think task with electrophysiological signals recorded. The results showed that the SIF effect was observed only in the high CCC group but not in the low CCC group. In accordance, repeated suppression attempts also resulted in a steeper reduction in intrusive thoughts in the high CCC group. Furthermore, ERP analysis revealed a decrease in recollection-related late parietal positivity (LPP) under the no-think condition in the high CCC group, indicating successful avoidance of recall. A mediation analysis revealed that the reduced intrusive memories mediated the effect of CCC on SIF. These findings suggest that suppressing retrieval could reduce traces of the unwanted memories, making them less intrusive and harder to recall. More importantly, successful SIF is constrained by the capacity of cognitive control which may be used to ensure the coordination of multiple cognitive processes during suppression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suya Chen
- School of Psychological and Cognitive Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, 100871, China.
| | - Xinrui Mao
- Collage of Elementary Education, Capital Normal University, Beijing, 100871, China.
| | - Yanhong Wu
- School of Psychological and Cognitive Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, 100871, China; Beijing Key Laboratory of Behavior and Mental Health, Key Laboratory of Machine Perception, Ministry of Education, Peking University, Beijing, 100871, China.
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7
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EEG evidence that morally relevant autobiographical memories can be suppressed. COGNITIVE, AFFECTIVE & BEHAVIORAL NEUROSCIENCE 2022; 22:1290-1310. [PMID: 35986196 PMCID: PMC9622558 DOI: 10.3758/s13415-022-01029-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/21/2022] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Remembering unpleasant events can trigger negative feelings. Fortunately, research indicates that unwanted retrieval can be suppressed to prevent memories from intruding into awareness, improving our mental state. The current scientific understanding of retrieval suppression, however, is based mostly on simpler memories, such as associations between words or pictures, which may not reflect how people control unpleasant memory intrusions in everyday life. Here, we investigated the neural and behavioural dynamics of suppressing personal and emotional autobiographical memories using a modified version of the Think/No-Think task. We asked participants to suppress memories of their own past immoral actions, which were hypothesised to be both highly intrusive and motivating to suppress. We report novel evidence from behavioural, ERP, and EEG oscillation measures that autobiographical memory retrieval can be suppressed and suggest that autobiographical suppression recruits similar neurocognitive mechanisms as suppression of simple laboratory associations. Suppression did fail sometimes, and EEG oscillations indicated that such memory intrusions occurred from lapses in sustained control. Importantly, however, participants improved at limiting intrusions with repeated practice. Furthermore, both behavioural and EEG evidence indicated that intentional suppression may be more difficult for memories of our morally wrong actions than memories of our morally right actions. The findings elucidate the neurocognitive correlates of autobiographical retrieval suppression and have implications for theories of morally motivated memory control.
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8
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Bian Z, Yang R, Yang X, Liu Y, Gao X, Chen H. Influence of negative mood on restrained eaters' memory suppression of food cues: An event-related potentials study. Appetite 2021; 164:105269. [PMID: 33872752 DOI: 10.1016/j.appet.2021.105269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2020] [Revised: 04/10/2021] [Accepted: 04/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Negative mood has been found to be a critical trigger for overeating in restrained eaters. The ability to suppress thinking of palatable food cues is crucial to control hedonic eating; nevertheless, little research has been conducted to explore inhibitory control in cognitive processes among restrained eaters. To address this gap, this study primed restrained eaters with negative (n = 23) or neutral emotions (n = 24) and applied a Think/No-think paradigm to explore their retrieval facilitation/suppression ability for food cues, while recording Electroencephalogram (EEG) data. Results indicated that the recall rate of the No-think condition (retrieval suppressing task) was higher than the Think condition (retrieval task). Negative affect did not influence the recall rate, but it did evoke smaller N2 amplitudes, larger P2 and P3 amplitudes, as well as late positive component (LPC) amplitudes. Among these components, P2 evoked by the No-think and Think conditions was larger than the perceptual control condition. Our findings suggested that in negative moods, restrained eaters need to allocate more attentional resources to suppress food cues. The findings further demonstrated that the influence of negative moods appeared at an early stage of cognitive processing and caused a resource depletion in memory suppression. This research provides a neurophysiological basis for understanding emotional influences on the process of restrained eaters' inhibition control for external food cues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ziming Bian
- Key Laboratory of Cognition and Personality (Ministry of Education), Southwest University, Chongqing, China; Faculty of Psychology, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
| | - Runlan Yang
- Key Laboratory of Cognition and Personality (Ministry of Education), Southwest University, Chongqing, China; Faculty of Psychology, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
| | - Xinmeng Yang
- Key Laboratory of Cognition and Personality (Ministry of Education), Southwest University, Chongqing, China; Faculty of Psychology, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
| | - Yong Liu
- Key Laboratory of Cognition and Personality (Ministry of Education), Southwest University, Chongqing, China; Faculty of Psychology, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
| | - Xiao Gao
- Key Laboratory of Cognition and Personality (Ministry of Education), Southwest University, Chongqing, China; Faculty of Psychology, Southwest University, Chongqing, China; Research Center of Psychology and Social Development in Chong Qing, China.
| | - Hong Chen
- Key Laboratory of Cognition and Personality (Ministry of Education), Southwest University, Chongqing, China; Faculty of Psychology, Southwest University, Chongqing, China; Research Center of Psychology and Social Development in Chong Qing, China.
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Nair A, Eyer JC, Faust ME. Neurophysiologic evidence for increased retrieval suppression among negative ruminators. Brain Behav 2020; 10:e01748. [PMID: 32748533 PMCID: PMC7507338 DOI: 10.1002/brb3.1748] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2019] [Revised: 06/09/2020] [Accepted: 06/19/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Events (e.g., seeing a familiar face) may initiate retrieval of associated information (e.g., person's name), but not all cue-initiated memory retrieval is welcome (e.g., trauma). Retrieval suppression refers to the ability to halt unwanted retrieval, and any erosion of memory associations in response to repeatedly excluding a memory from consciousness. The current study sought to examine event-related potential (ERP, averaged scalp electrical recordings) correlates of inhibitory cognitive control of memory retrieval and any linkage of such control to ruminative memory styles. METHODS Participants (N = 23) first learned face-picture pairings. ERPs were then recorded as they viewed face cues while either bringing the associated picture to mind (think trial), or not allowing the associated picture to come to mind (no-think trial). RESULTS Emotional valence of learned pictures (negative versus neutral) modulated a posterior (P1, 100-150 ms) ERP associated with attention to the face cue. Memory strategy (think versus no-think) modulated a frontal (P3, 350-450 ms) associated with alerting of the need to control retrieval. Both valence and strategy worked in combination to modulate a late posterior (LC, 450-550 ms) ERP associated with successful memory retrieval. Brooding, a negative form of rumination, was found to be positively correlated with the LC ERP. CONCLUSION The results suggest early separation of emotional and strategic control of retrieval, but later combined control over access to working memory. Moreover, the positive correlation of brooding and the LC suggest that individuals who are high in application of perseverative strategies to memory retrieval will show greater modulation of the retrieval-related LC ERP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aarti Nair
- Department of PsychologySchool of Behavioral HealthLoma Linda UniversityLoma LindaCAUSA
| | - Joshua C. Eyer
- Capstone College of NursingUniversity of AlabamaTuscaloosaALUSA
| | - Mark E. Faust
- Department of Psychological ScienceUniversity of North CarolinaCharlotteNCUSA
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10
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Castiglione A, Wagner J, Anderson M, Aron AR. Preventing a Thought from Coming to Mind Elicits Increased Right Frontal Beta Just as Stopping Action Does. Cereb Cortex 2020; 29:2160-2172. [PMID: 30806454 PMCID: PMC6458912 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhz017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2018] [Revised: 01/20/2019] [Accepted: 01/25/2019] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
In the stop-signal task, an electrophysiological signature of action-stopping is increased early right frontal beta band power for successful vs. failed stop trials. Here we tested whether the requirement to stop an unwanted thought from coming to mind also elicits this signature. We recorded scalp EEG during a Think/No-Think task and a subsequent stop signal task in 42 participants. In the Think/No-Think task, participants first learned word pairs. In a second phase, they received the left-hand word as a reminder and were cued either to retrieve the associated right-hand word ("Think") or to stop retrieval ("No-Think"). At the end of each trial, participants reported whether they had experienced an intrusion of the associated memory. Finally, they received the left-hand reminder word and were asked to recall its associated target. Behaviorally, there was worse final recall for items in the No-Think condition, and decreased intrusions with practice for No-Think trials. For EEG, we reproduced increased early right frontal beta power for successful vs. failed action stopping. Critically, No-Think trials also elicited increased early right frontal beta power and this was stronger for trials without intrusion. These results suggest that preventing a thought from coming to mind also recruits fast prefrontal stopping.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Castiglione
- Department of Psychology, University of California, San Diego, CA, USA
| | - Johanna Wagner
- Swartz Center for Computational Neuroscience, Institute for Neural Computation, University of California, San Diego, CA, USA
| | - Michael Anderson
- MRC Cognition and Brain Sciences Unit, University of Cambridge, UK
| | - Adam R Aron
- Department of Psychology, University of California, San Diego, CA, USA
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11
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Xia J, Evans LH. Neural evidence that disengaging memory retrieval is modulated by stimulus valence and rumination. Sci Rep 2020; 10:7548. [PMID: 32372004 PMCID: PMC7200702 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-64404-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2019] [Accepted: 04/03/2020] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
To remember information from our personal past we need to be in a cognitive state where we treat stimuli as cues for memory retrieval. In this study we considered whether participants could exert control and disengage from a memory state when it was no longer required for the task at hand. In particular, we examined whether this ability was affected by the valence of the stimuli and participant's rumination scores. After a study phase participants completed test blocks where the task switched every two trials between a memory task (retrieving information from the study phase) and a perceptual task. Even though there was no episodic memory requirement in the perceptual task, a well-established event-related potential (ERP) index of memory retrieval was present for both trials when the stimuli were negative valenced pictures but not for neutral pictures. Furthermore, there was a positive correlation between the magnitude of this ERP memory index in the perceptual task and rumination scores but only for neutral stimuli and not negative. Thus, in this study participants generally had difficultly suppressing memory retrieval when negative stimuli were presented. However, for neutral stimuli only ruminators were more susceptible to memory intrusions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiangyi Xia
- Center for Mind and Brain and Neurology Department, University of California, Davis, 267 Cousteau Place, Davis, 95618, California, USA
| | - Lisa H Evans
- Cardiff University Brain Research Imaging Centre (CUBRIC), School of Psychology, Cardiff University, Cardiff, CF24 4HQ, Wales, UK.
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12
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Motivated forgetting increases the recall time of learnt items: Behavioral and event related potential evidence. Brain Res 2020; 1729:146624. [PMID: 31881184 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2019.146624] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2019] [Revised: 12/01/2019] [Accepted: 12/23/2019] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
We investigated modulation of the recall time in a motivated forgetting (MF) paradigm and the neural manifestation of it through event related potential (ERP) analysis. We studied whether compared to failed attempts in suppression, partial success can potentiate control mechanisms and this might manifest, neurally as modulation of ERP components related to conscious recollection, and behaviorally as delayed recall of learnt items. We employed a modified version of the Think\No-Think paradigm with dominant number of No-Think words (cued to forget). We defined a forgetting index as FI = Final Recall Time-Initial Recall Time. The MF trials were separated into three conditions according to their corresponding FI; Forget, Delayed Recall, and Recall conditions. The findings revealed significant late ERP effects in terms of a late parietal positivity (LPP), modulated by the item condition, that appeared to reflect the consequence of conscious suppression on actual retrieval of stored memory. Over the same topographic location, FI was negatively correlated with the LPP amplitude, demonstrating the consequence of inhibition processing during MF in modulating the recall time. The negative correlation between LPP and FI provides evidence that increased recall time due to MF is also related to reduced activity, probably in the hippocampal-parietal network, corresponding to recollection of suppressed memories.
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13
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Niessen C, Göbel K, Siebers M, Schmid U. Time to Forget. ZEITSCHRIFT FUR ARBEITS-UND ORGANISATIONSPSYCHOLOGIE 2020. [DOI: 10.1026/0932-4089/a000308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Abstract. Emerging technologies at work encourage the collection and storage of large amounts of data. However, these vast quantities of data are likely to impair efficient work decisions by employees over time, with negative consequences for the organization. As human attention increasingly represents the scarce resource at work, the present paper focuses on a mechanism of attentional control at work – namely, intentionally forgetting unwanted and outdated internal (e. g., knowledge) and external (e. g., digital objects) information. The purpose of this paper is threefold. Based on a short review of the research on intentional forgetting, a prototypical conceptualization of an interactive assistive system (Dare2Del, cognitive companion) is provided, which should support employees in temporally ignoring or permanently deleting outdated information. Then, we completed a critical incident study to examine why and when employees might want to forget information at work, and to identify in which working situations an assistive system should be particularly helpful.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cornelia Niessen
- Lehrstuhl für Psychologie im Arbeitsleben, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg
| | - Kyra Göbel
- Lehrstuhl für Psychologie im Arbeitsleben, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg
| | - Michael Siebers
- Angewandte Informatik/Kognitive Systeme, Otto-Friedrich-Universität Bamberg
| | - Ute Schmid
- Angewandte Informatik/Kognitive Systeme, Otto-Friedrich-Universität Bamberg
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Davidson P, Hellerstedt R, Jönsson P, Johansson M. Suppression-induced forgetting diminishes following a delay of either sleep or wake. JOURNAL OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 2019. [DOI: 10.1080/20445911.2019.1705311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Per Davidson
- Department of Psychology, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Robin Hellerstedt
- Department of Psychology, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
- School of Psychology, University of Kent, Canterbury, Kent, UK
| | - Peter Jönsson
- School of Education and Environment, Centre for Psychology, Kristianstad University, Kristianstad, Sweden
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López-Caneda E, Crego A, Campos AD, González-Villar A, Sampaio A. The Think/No-Think Alcohol Task: A New Paradigm for Assessing Memory Suppression in Alcohol-Related Contexts. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2018; 43:36-47. [DOI: 10.1111/acer.13916] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2018] [Accepted: 10/23/2018] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Eduardo López-Caneda
- Psychological Neuroscience Lab ; Research Center in Psychology (CIPsi); School of Psychology; University of Minho; Braga Portugal
| | - Alberto Crego
- Psychological Neuroscience Lab ; Research Center in Psychology (CIPsi); School of Psychology; University of Minho; Braga Portugal
| | - Ana D. Campos
- Human Cognition Lab ; Research Center in Psychology (CIPsi); School of Psychology; University of Minho; Braga Portugal
| | - Alberto González-Villar
- Department of Clinical Psychology and Psychobiology ; University of Santiago de Compostela; Galicia Spain
| | - Adriana Sampaio
- Psychological Neuroscience Lab ; Research Center in Psychology (CIPsi); School of Psychology; University of Minho; Braga Portugal
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16
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Individuals with depressive tendencies experience difficulty in forgetting negative material: two mechanisms revealed by ERP data in the directed forgetting paradigm. Sci Rep 2018; 8:1113. [PMID: 29348422 PMCID: PMC5773552 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-19570-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2017] [Accepted: 01/04/2018] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Although previous studies have shown that individuals with depressive tendencies have deficits in forgetting negative material, the detailed underlying neural mechanisms have not been elucidated. This study examined the intentional forgetting of negative and neutral material in individuals with depressive tendencies in two phases. In the study phase, the participants performed a directed forgetting task, where a total of 320 words were presented to them, each followed by an instructive cue to forget or remember the previously presented word. Subsequently, in the memory recognition test phase, the participants completed the “old or new discrimination task”. The results indicated that individuals with depressive tendencies had difficulties suppressing the memory encoding of negative words, while the suppression of memory encoding of neutral words was relatively intact. Moreover, individuals with depressive tendencies displayed enhanced word-evoked P2 and late positive potential for negative items, as well as enhanced cue-evoked P1 and N2 for the negative items that were required to be forgotten, as compared to individuals without depressive tendencies. Based on these results, we propose two mechanisms that may contribute to the failure of forgetting negative material in mild depression: (1) inefficient memory suppression and early selective attention, and (2) excessive preliminary processing.
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17
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Abstract
After unpleasant events, people often experience intrusive memories that undermine their peace of mind. In response, they often suppress these unwanted memories from awareness. Such efforts may fail, however, when inhibitory control demands are high due to the need to sustain control, or when fatigue compromises inhibitory capacity. Here we examined how sustained inhibitory demand affected intrusive memories in the Think/No-Think paradigm. To isolate intrusions, participants reported, trial-by-trial, whether their preceding attempt to suppress retrieval had triggered retrieval of the memory they intended to suppress. Such counter-intentional retrievals provide a laboratory model of the sort of involuntary retrieval that may underlie intrusive memories. Using this method, we found that longer duration trials increased the probability of an intrusion. Moreover, on later No-Think trials, control over intrusions suddenly declined, with longer trial durations triggering more relapses of items that had been previously been purged. Thus, the challenges of controlling retrieval appear to cause a decline in control over time, due to a change in state, such as fatigue. These findings raise the possibility that characteristics often true of people with psychiatric disorders - such as compromised sleep, and increased demand on control - may contribute to difficulties in suppressing intrusive memories.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin van Schie
- Department of Clinical Psychology, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
- Institute of Psychology, Erasmus University Rotterdam, Rotterdam, Netherlands
| | - Michael C. Anderson
- MRC Cognition and Brain Sciences Unit, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
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18
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Effects of cortisol on the memory bias for emotional words? A study in patients with depression and healthy participants using the Directed Forgetting task. J Psychiatr Res 2017; 92:191-198. [PMID: 28499272 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2017.04.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2016] [Revised: 04/19/2017] [Accepted: 04/28/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Mood congruent alterations in information processing such as an impaired memory bias for emotional information and impaired inhibitory functions are prominent features of a major depressive disorder (MDD). Furthermore, in MDD patients hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis dysfunctions are frequently found. Impairing effects of stress or cortisol administration on memory retrieval as well as impairing stress effects on cognitive inhibition are well documented in healthy participants. In MDD patients, no effect of acute cortisol administration on memory retrieval was found. The current study investigated the effect of acute cortisol administration on memory bias in MDD patients (N = 55) and healthy controls (N = 63) using the Directed Forgetting (DF) task with positive, negative and neutral words in a placebo controlled, double blind design. After oral administration of 10 mg hydrocortisone/placebo, the item method of the DF task was conducted. Memory performance was tested with a free recall test. Cortisol was not found to have an effect on the results of the DF task. Interestingly, there was significant impact of valence: both groups showed the highest DF score for positive words and remembered significantly more positive words that were supposed to be remembered and significantly more negative words that were supposed to be forgotten. In general, healthy participants remembered more words than the depressed patients. Still, the depressed patients were able to inhibit intentionally irrelevant information at a comparable level as the healthy controls. These results demonstrate the importance to distinguish in experimental designs between different cognitive domains such as inhibition and memory in our study.
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19
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Smith R, Alkozei A, Bao J, Killgore WDS. Successful Goal-Directed Memory Suppression is Associated With Increased Inter-Hemispheric Coordination Between Right and Left Frontoparietal Control Networks. Psychol Rep 2017; 121:93-111. [DOI: 10.1177/0033294117723018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The neural basis of suppressing conscious access to one’s own memories has recently received considerable attention, with several studies suggesting this process engages frontal-parietal cognitive control regions. However, researchers to date have not examined the way right and left hemisphere cognitive control networks coordinate with one another to accomplish this. We had 48 participants (25 female) complete a Think/No Think (T/NT) task for memories of emotionally unpleasant visual scenes while undergoing functional magnetic resonance imaging. We used generalized psychophysiologic interaction analyses to examine functional connectivity between right and left hemisphere frontal-parietal regions during memory suppression. Participants who were better at memory suppression, as assessed by greater numbers of forgotten memories in the NT than T conditions, also showed greater functional connectivity between multiple right and left hemisphere control regions. This suggests that individual differences in memory suppression ability may be partially explained by differences in task-specific inter-hemispheric coordination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan Smith
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - Anna Alkozei
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - Jennifer Bao
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
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20
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon Nørby
- Danish School of Education, Aarhus University, Copenhagen, Denmark
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21
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Parallel Regulation of Memory and Emotion Supports the Suppression of Intrusive Memories. J Neurosci 2017; 37:6423-6441. [PMID: 28559378 PMCID: PMC5511877 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.2732-16.2017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2016] [Revised: 04/12/2017] [Accepted: 04/17/2017] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Intrusive memories often take the form of distressing images that emerge into a person's awareness, unbidden. A fundamental goal of clinical neuroscience is to understand the mechanisms allowing people to control these memory intrusions and reduce their emotional impact. Mnemonic control engages a right frontoparietal network that interrupts episodic retrieval by modulating hippocampal activity; less is known, however, about how this mechanism contributes to affect regulation. Here we report evidence in humans (males and females) that stopping episodic retrieval to suppress an unpleasant image triggers parallel inhibition of mnemonic and emotional content. Using fMRI, we found that regulation of both mnemonic and emotional content was driven by a shared frontoparietal inhibitory network and was predicted by a common profile of medial temporal lobe downregulation involving the anterior hippocampus and the amygdala. Critically, effective connectivity analysis confirmed that reduced amygdala activity was not merely an indirect consequence of hippocampal suppression; rather, both the hippocampus and the amygdala were targeted by a top-down inhibitory control signal originating from the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. This negative coupling was greater when unwanted memories intruded into awareness and needed to be purged. Together, these findings support the broad principle that retrieval suppression is achieved by regulating hippocampal processes in tandem with domain-specific brain regions involved in reinstating specific content, in an activity-dependent fashion. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Upsetting events sometimes trigger intrusive images that cause distress and that may contribute to psychiatric disorders. People often respond to intrusions by suppressing their retrieval, excluding them from awareness. Here we examined whether suppressing aversive images might also alter emotional responses to them, and the mechanisms underlying such changes. We found that the better people were at suppressing intrusions, the more it reduced their emotional responses to suppressed images. These dual effects on memory and emotion originated from a common right prefrontal cortical mechanism that downregulated the hippocampus and amygdala in parallel. Thus, suppressing intrusions affected emotional content. Importantly, participants who did not suppress intrusions well showed increased negative affect, suggesting that suppression deficits render people vulnerable to psychiatric disorders.
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22
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Memory consolidation reconfigures neural pathways involved in the suppression of emotional memories. Nat Commun 2016; 7:13375. [PMID: 27898050 PMCID: PMC5141344 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms13375] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2015] [Accepted: 09/27/2016] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
The ability to suppress unwanted emotional memories is crucial for human mental health. Through consolidation over time, emotional memories often become resistant to change. However, how consolidation impacts the effectiveness of emotional memory suppression is still unknown. Using event-related fMRI while concurrently recording skin conductance, we investigated the neurobiological processes underlying the suppression of aversive memories before and after overnight consolidation. Here we report that consolidated aversive memories retain their emotional reactivity and become more resistant to suppression. Suppression of consolidated memories involves higher prefrontal engagement, and less concomitant hippocampal and amygdala disengagement. In parallel, we show a shift away from hippocampal-dependent representational patterns to distributed neocortical representational patterns in the suppression of aversive memories after consolidation. These findings demonstrate rapid changes in emotional memory organization with overnight consolidation, and suggest possible neurobiological bases underlying the resistance to suppression of emotional memories in affective disorders. As memories consolidate over time, they become resistant to change, though how this impacts the volitional suppression of memories is not known. Liu and colleagues show that, after overnight consolidation, aversive memories exhibit distributed prefrontal representations and are harder to suppress.
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23
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Zhang D, Xie H, Liu Y, Luo Y. Neural correlates underlying impaired memory facilitation and suppression of negative material in depression. Sci Rep 2016; 6:37556. [PMID: 27857199 PMCID: PMC5114610 DOI: 10.1038/srep37556] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2016] [Accepted: 11/01/2016] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Previous behavioral studies demonstrated that depressed individuals have difficulties in forgetting unwanted, especially negative, event. However, inconsistent results still exit and the neural mechanism of this phenomenon has not been investigated. This study examined the intentional memory facilitation/suppression of negative and neutral materials in depression using Think/No-Think paradigm. We found that compared with nondepressed group, depressed group recalled more negative items, irrespective of either "Think" or "No-Think" instructions. Accordingly, the frontal N2 (reflecting voluntary memory inhibition) and parietal late positive component (LPC) (reflecting conscious recollection) showed deflection for negative items in depressed compared with nondepressed participants. On the one hand, the reduced N2 for negative "No-Think" items indicated that depressed individuals have low motivation to suppress negative items so intentional forgetting is less successful for mood-congruent events. On the other hand, the enhanced LPC for negative "Think" items suggested that negative memories are excessively revisited by depressed participants (compared with nondepressed ones) due to their mood-congruent and intrusive nature. Thus we demonstrated that depressed individuals show behavioral and ERP deviations from healthy controls for both voluntary suppression and conscious retrieval of negative memory; the two abnormalities of memory control together contribute to the difficulties in forgetting negative material in depression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dandan Zhang
- Institute of Affective and Social Neuroscience, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China
| | - Hui Xie
- Institute of Affective and Social Neuroscience, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China
| | - Yunzhe Liu
- Institute of Affective and Social Neuroscience, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China
| | - Yuejia Luo
- Institute of Affective and Social Neuroscience, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China
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24
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Hellerstedt R, Johansson M, Anderson MC. Tracking the intrusion of unwanted memories into awareness with event-related potentials. Neuropsychologia 2016; 89:510-523. [PMID: 27396675 PMCID: PMC5010041 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2016.07.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2015] [Revised: 07/05/2016] [Accepted: 07/07/2016] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Involuntary retrieval of unwanted memories is a common symptom in several clinical disorders, including post-traumatic stress disorder. With an aim to track the temporal dynamics of such memory intrusions, we recorded electrophysiological measures of brain activity while participants engaged in a Think/No-Think task. We presented the left hand word (the cue) of previously encoded word pairs in green or red font. We asked participants to think of the associated right hand word (the associate) when the cue appeared in green (Think condition) and to avoid thinking of the associate when the cue appeared in red (No-Think condition). To isolate cases when participants experienced an intrusive memory, at the end of each trial, participants judged whether the response had come to mind; we classified memories that came to mind during No-Think trials, despite efforts to stop retrieval, as intrusions. In an event-related potential (ERP) analysis, we observed a negative going slow wave (NSW) effect that indexed the duration of a trace in mnemonic awareness; whereas voluntary retrieval and maintenance of the associate was related to a sustained NSW that lasted throughout the 3-s recording epoch, memory intrusions generated short-lived NSWs that were rapidly truncated. Based on these findings, we hypothesize that the intrusion-NSW reflects the associate briefly penetrating working memory. More broadly, these findings exploit the high temporal resolution of ERPs to track the online dynamics of memory intrusions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robin Hellerstedt
- Department of Psychology, Lund University, Paradisgatan 5 P, 223 50 Lund, Sweden.
| | - Mikael Johansson
- Department of Psychology, Lund University, Paradisgatan 5 P, 223 50 Lund, Sweden
| | - Michael C Anderson
- MRC Cognition and Brain Sciences Unit, University of Cambridge, 15 Chaucer Road, Cambridge CB2 7EF, UK
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25
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Streb M, Mecklinger A, Anderson MC, Johanna LH, Michael T. Memory control ability modulates intrusive memories after analogue trauma. J Affect Disord 2016; 192:134-42. [PMID: 26724692 DOI: 10.1016/j.jad.2015.12.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2015] [Revised: 12/16/2015] [Accepted: 12/19/2015] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Most people suffer from intrusive memories in the aftermath of trauma. For survivors' well-being, it is key that these intrusions are controlled. Memory control can be exerted through retrieval suppression. Poor retrieval suppression, however, should be associated with persistent distressing intrusions and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). This study tested the hypothesis that individual differences in retrieval suppression predict intrusive memories after trauma. Retrieval suppression was examined with the think/no-think task (TNT) using behavioral and event related potential (ERP) measures. METHODS Twenty-four healthy participants watched a "traumatic" film after performing the TNT task. The frequency and distress of intrusions from the "traumatic" film was measured with an electronic diary. Additionally the Impact of Event Scale (IES) was assessed. RESULTS In line with our hypothesis, behavioral measures of retrieval suppression ability predicted reduced distress ratings for intrusions (r=-.53, p<.01). Further ERP markers of retrieval suppression (a fronto-centrally distributed N2) predicted reduced distress ratings for intrusions (r=-.45, p<.05) and reduced IES Intrusion scores (r=-.56, p<.01). LIMITATIONS The presented film is a relatively mild stressor as compared to a real-life trauma. Further studies are needed to explore the role of memory control processes for real-life trauma. CONCLUSIONS Participants with lower retrieval suppression ability exhibited less distressing intrusive memories after analogue trauma. The ERP correlate of retrieval suppression was associated with less distressing intrusive memories and reduced IES Intrusion scores, suggesting that deficient memory control is a potential risk factor for developing PTSD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Markus Streb
- Division of Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, Department of Psychology, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Axel Mecklinger
- Experimental Neuropsychology Unit, Department of Psychology, Saarland University, Saarbrucken, Germany
| | - Michael C Anderson
- MRC Cognition and Brain Sciences Unit, Cambridge, United Kingdom; Behavioural and Clinical Neurosciences Unit, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Lass-Hennemann Johanna
- Division of Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, Department of Psychology, Saarland University, Saarbrucken, Germany
| | - Tanja Michael
- Division of Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, Department of Psychology, Saarland University, Saarbrucken, Germany.
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26
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Abstract
Is forgetting mostly a positive force in human life? On the surface, this seems to not be the case, and people often associate memory loss with frustration in their everyday lives. Yet, forgetting does not have exclusively negative consequences; it also serves valuable, indeed vital, functions. In this article, I review and reflect on evidence from various areas of research, and I argue that forgetting serves at least three broad purposes. First, it is part of emotion regulation, and it promotes subjective well-being by limiting access to negative memories and by reducing unpleasant affect. Forgetting thereby allows for positivity and painlessness. Second, it is involved in knowledge acquisition, and it provides a basis for obtaining semantic and procedural knowledge by allowing for abstraction and automatization. Third, forgetting is part of context attunement, and it orients information processing for the present and the future by facilitating environmental sensitivity and by ensuring that knowledge is current, which enables timeliness and updating. Overall, I suggest that forgetting helps people to be happy, well-structured, and context sensitive, and thereby that it serves fundamentally adaptive functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon Nørby
- Danish School of Education, Aarhus University
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27
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Küpper CS, Benoit RG, Dalgleish T, Anderson MC. Direct suppression as a mechanism for controlling unpleasant memories in daily life. J Exp Psychol Gen 2014; 143:1443-9. [PMID: 24749897 PMCID: PMC4113301 DOI: 10.1037/a0036518] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2013] [Revised: 02/27/2014] [Accepted: 03/03/2014] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Suppressing unwanted memories can impair their later recall. Recent work shows that this forgetting is achieved by at least two mechanisms supported by distinct neural systems: thought substitution and direct suppression (Benoit & Anderson, 2012). Here, we examined whether direct suppression, thought to be achieved by down-regulation of hippocampal activity, can disrupt memory of aversive scenes, and, if so, whether this disruption is linked to people's perception of their ability to control intrusive thoughts. We presented participants with strong naturalistic reminders to aversive scenes and asked them to either covertly retrieve or directly suppress the associated scenes. Later, participants were cued with the reminders and asked to recall the scenes in detail. Direct suppression reduced recall probability of the scenes and also reduced the number of details recalled, even when scenes were remembered. Deficits in recall arose for minor details but also for details central to each scene's gist. Participants with higher self-perceived control abilities over intrusive thoughts showed greater forgetting than did those reporting lower levels of control. These findings suggest that inhibitory processes underlying direct suppression can disrupt retention of aversive visual memories and link those processes to individual differences in control over intrusive thoughts in everyday life. These findings reinforce the possibility that inhibition may be less efficient in people likely to acquire posttraumatic stress disorder in the wake of a traumatic experience.
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28
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Anderson MC, Hanslmayr S. Neural mechanisms of motivated forgetting. Trends Cogn Sci 2014; 18:279-92. [PMID: 24747000 PMCID: PMC4045208 DOI: 10.1016/j.tics.2014.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 289] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2013] [Revised: 02/25/2014] [Accepted: 03/17/2014] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Motivated forgetting of unwanted memories shapes what we retain of our personal past. Motivated forgetting is achieved in part by inhibitory control over encoding or retrieval. Prefrontal cortex reduces hippocampal and cortical activity to suppress memories. Electrophysiological activity during motivated forgetting implicates active inhibition. A neurobiological model of memory control can inform disordered control over memory.
Not all memories are equally welcome in awareness. People limit the time they spend thinking about unpleasant experiences, a process that begins during encoding, but that continues when cues later remind someone of the memory. Here, we review the emerging behavioural and neuroimaging evidence that suppressing awareness of an unwelcome memory, at encoding or retrieval, is achieved by inhibitory control processes mediated by the lateral prefrontal cortex. These mechanisms interact with neural structures that represent experiences in memory, disrupting traces that support retention. Thus, mechanisms engaged to regulate momentary awareness introduce lasting biases in which experiences remain accessible. We argue that theories of forgetting that neglect the motivated control of awareness omit a powerful force shaping the retention of our past.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael C Anderson
- MRC Cognition and Brain Sciences Unit, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK; Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.
| | - Simon Hanslmayr
- School of Psychology, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK; Department of Psychology - Zukunftskolleg, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany
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29
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Depue BE, Ketz N, Mollison MV, Nyhus E, Banich MT, Curran T. ERPs and Neural Oscillations during Volitional Suppression of Memory Retrieval. J Cogn Neurosci 2013; 25:1624-33. [DOI: 10.1162/jocn_a_00418] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Although investigations of memory and the dynamics of ERP components and neural oscillations as assessed through EEG have been well utilized, little research into the volitional nature of suppression over memory retrieval have used these methods. Oscillation analyses conducted on the Think/No-Think (TNT) task and volitional suppression of retrieval are of interest to broaden our knowledge of neural oscillations associated not only during successful memory retrieval but also when retrieval is unwanted or suppressed. In the current study, we measured EEG during a TNT task and performed ERP and EEG spectral power band analyses. ERP results replicated other researchers' observations of increases in 500–800 msec parietal effects for items where retrieval was instructed to be elaborated compared with being suppressed. Furthermore, EEG analyses indicated increased alpha (8–12 Hz) and theta (3–8 Hz) oscillations across parietal electrodes for items that were instructed to be suppressed versus those to be elaborated. Additionally, during the second half of the experiment (after repeated attempts at control), increases in theta oscillations were found across both frontal and parietal electrodes for items that were instructed to be suppressed and that were ultimately forgotten versus those ultimately remembered. Increased alpha power for items that were instructed to be suppressed versus elaborated may indicate reductions of retrieval attempts or lack of retrieval success. Increased theta power for items that were instructed to be suppressed versus elaborated may indicate increased or prolonged cognitive control to monitor retrieval events.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Marie T. Banich
- 1University of Colorado-Boulder
- 3University of Colorado-Denver
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