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Santos VR, Tilelli CQ, Fernandes A, de Castro OW, Del-Vecchio F, Garcia-Cairasco N. Different types of Status Epilepticus may lead to similar hippocampal epileptogenesis processes. IBRO Neurosci Rep 2023; 15:68-76. [PMID: 37457787 PMCID: PMC10338355 DOI: 10.1016/j.ibneur.2023.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2023] [Revised: 06/05/2023] [Accepted: 06/05/2023] [Indexed: 07/18/2023] Open
Abstract
About 1-2% of people worldwide suffer from epilepsy, which is characterized by unpredictable and intermittent seizure occurrence. Despite the fact that the exact origin of temporal lobe epilepsy is frequently unknown, it is frequently linked to an early triggering insult like brain damage, tumors, or Status Epilepticus (SE). We used an experimental approach consisting of electrical stimulation of the amygdaloid complex to induce two behaviorally and structurally distinct SE states: Type I (fully convulsive), with more severe seizure behaviors and more extensive brain damage, and Type II (partial convulsive), with less severe seizure behaviors and brain damage. Our goal was to better understand how the various types of SE impact the hippocampus leading to the development of epilepsy. Despite clear variations between the two behaviors in terms of neurodegeneration, study of neurogenesis revealed a comparable rise in the number of Ki-67 + cells and an increase in Doublecortin (DCX) in both kinds of SE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victor R. Santos
- Department of Physiology, Ribeirão Preto School of Medicine, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
- Department of Morphology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, MG, Brazil
| | - Cristiane Q. Tilelli
- Department of Physiology, Ribeirão Preto School of Medicine, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
- Campus Centro-Oeste Dona Lindu, Federal University of São João Del Rey, Divinópolis, MG, Brazil
| | - Artur Fernandes
- Department of Physiology, Ribeirão Preto School of Medicine, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Olagide Wagner de Castro
- Department of Physiology, Ribeirão Preto School of Medicine, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, Universidade Federal de Alagoas, Maceió, AL, Brazil
| | - Flávio Del-Vecchio
- Department of Physiology, Ribeirão Preto School of Medicine, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Norberto Garcia-Cairasco
- Department of Physiology, Ribeirão Preto School of Medicine, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
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Hansen MG, Ledri LN, Kirik D, Kokaia M, Ledri M. Preserved Function of Afferent Parvalbumin-Positive Perisomatic Inhibitory Synapses of Dentate Granule Cells in Rapidly Kindled Mice. Front Cell Neurosci 2018; 11:433. [PMID: 29375319 PMCID: PMC5767181 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2017.00433] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2017] [Accepted: 12/22/2017] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Parvalbumin- (PV-) containing basket cells constitute perisomatic GABAergic inhibitory interneurons innervating principal cells at perisomatic area, a strategic location that allows them to efficiently control the output and synchronize oscillatory activity at gamma frequency (30–90 Hz) oscillations. This oscillatory activity can convert into higher frequency epileptiform activity, and therefore could play an important role in the generation of seizures. However, the role of endogenous modulators of seizure activity, such as Neuropeptide Y (NPY), has not been fully explored in at PV input and output synapses. Here, using selective optogenetic activation of PV cells in the hippocampus, we show that seizures, induced by rapid kindling (RK) stimulations, enhance gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) release from PV cells onto dentate gyrus (DG) granule cells (GC). However, PV-GC synapses did not differ between controls and kindled animals in terms of GABA release probability, short-term plasticity and sensitivity to NPY. Kinetics of gamma-aminobutyric acid A (GABA-A) mediated currents in postsynaptic GC were also unaffected. When challenged by repetitive high-frequency optogenetic stimulations, PV synapses in kindled animals responded with enhanced GABA release onto GC. These results unveil a mechanism that might possibly contribute to the generation of abnormal synchrony and maintenance of epileptic seizures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marita G Hansen
- Epilepsy Center, Department of Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Litsa N Ledri
- Epilepsy Center, Department of Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Deniz Kirik
- Brain Repair and Imaging in Neural Systems (BRAINS) Unit, Department of Experimental Medical Sciences, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Merab Kokaia
- Epilepsy Center, Department of Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Marco Ledri
- Epilepsy Center, Department of Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
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3
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Martins J, Elvas F, Brudzewsky D, Martins T, Kolomiets B, Tralhão P, Gøtzsche CR, Cavadas C, Castelo-Branco M, Woldbye DPD, Picaud S, Santiago AR, Ambrósio AF. Activation of Neuropeptide Y Receptors Modulates Retinal Ganglion Cell Physiology and Exerts Neuroprotective Actions In Vitro. ASN Neuro 2015; 7:7/4/1759091415598292. [PMID: 26311075 PMCID: PMC4552225 DOI: 10.1177/1759091415598292] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Neuropeptide Y (NPY) is expressed in mammalian retina but the location and potential modulatory effects of NPY receptor activation remain largely unknown. Retinal ganglion cell (RGC) death is a hallmark of several retinal degenerative diseases, particularly glaucoma. Using purified RGCs and ex vivo rat retinal preparations, we have measured RGC intracellular free calcium concentration ([Ca2+]i) and RGC spiking activity, respectively. We found that NPY attenuated the increase in the [Ca2+]i triggered by glutamate mainly via Y1 receptor activation. Moreover, (Leu31, Pro34)−NPY, a Y1/Y5 receptor agonist, increased the initial burst response of OFF-type RGCs, although no effect was observed on RGC spontaneous spiking activity. The Y1 receptor activation was also able to directly modulate RGC responses by attenuating the NMDA-induced increase in RGC spiking activity. These results suggest that Y1 receptor activation, at the level of inner or outer plexiform layers, leads to modulation of RGC receptive field properties. Using in vitro cultures of rat retinal explants exposed to NMDA, we found that NPY pretreatment prevented NMDA-induced cell death. However, in an animal model of retinal ischemia-reperfusion injury, pretreatment with NPY or (Leu31, Pro34)−NPY was not able to prevent apoptosis or rescue RGCs. In conclusion, we found modulatory effects of NPY application that for the first time were detected at the level of RGCs. However, further studies are needed to evaluate whether NPY neuroprotective actions detected in retinal explants can be translated into animal models of retinal degenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- João Martins
- Institute for Biomedical Imaging and Life Sciences (IBILI), Faculty of Medicine, University of Coimbra, 3004-548 Coimbra, Portugal CNC.IBILI, University of Coimbra, 3004-548 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Filipe Elvas
- Institute for Biomedical Imaging and Life Sciences (IBILI), Faculty of Medicine, University of Coimbra, 3004-548 Coimbra, Portugal CNC.IBILI, University of Coimbra, 3004-548 Coimbra, Portugal AIBILI, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Dan Brudzewsky
- Institute for Biomedical Imaging and Life Sciences (IBILI), Faculty of Medicine, University of Coimbra, 3004-548 Coimbra, Portugal CNC.IBILI, University of Coimbra, 3004-548 Coimbra, Portugal AIBILI, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Tânia Martins
- Institute for Biomedical Imaging and Life Sciences (IBILI), Faculty of Medicine, University of Coimbra, 3004-548 Coimbra, Portugal CNC.IBILI, University of Coimbra, 3004-548 Coimbra, Portugal AIBILI, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Bogdan Kolomiets
- Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06, Institut de la Vision, UMR_S968, 75012 Paris, France
| | - Pedro Tralhão
- Institute for Biomedical Imaging and Life Sciences (IBILI), Faculty of Medicine, University of Coimbra, 3004-548 Coimbra, Portugal CNC.IBILI, University of Coimbra, 3004-548 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Casper R Gøtzsche
- Laboratory of Neural Plasticity, Department of Neuroscience and Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, 2200 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Cláudia Cavadas
- CNC.IBILI, University of Coimbra, 3004-548 Coimbra, Portugal Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Coimbra, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Miguel Castelo-Branco
- Institute for Biomedical Imaging and Life Sciences (IBILI), Faculty of Medicine, University of Coimbra, 3004-548 Coimbra, Portugal CNC.IBILI, University of Coimbra, 3004-548 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - David P D Woldbye
- Laboratory of Neural Plasticity, Department of Neuroscience and Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, 2200 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Serge Picaud
- Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06, Institut de la Vision, UMR_S968, 75012 Paris, France
| | - Ana R Santiago
- Institute for Biomedical Imaging and Life Sciences (IBILI), Faculty of Medicine, University of Coimbra, 3004-548 Coimbra, Portugal CNC.IBILI, University of Coimbra, 3004-548 Coimbra, Portugal AIBILI, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - António F Ambrósio
- Institute for Biomedical Imaging and Life Sciences (IBILI), Faculty of Medicine, University of Coimbra, 3004-548 Coimbra, Portugal CNC.IBILI, University of Coimbra, 3004-548 Coimbra, Portugal AIBILI, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal
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Chen W, Tan Y, Ge Y, Chen Y, Liu X. The Effects of Levetiracetam on Cerebrospinal Fluid and Plasma NPY and GAL, and on the Components of Stress Response System, hs-CRP, and S100B Protein in Serum of Patients with Refractory Epilepsy. Cell Biochem Biophys 2015; 73:489-494. [DOI: 10.1007/s12013-015-0683-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
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Aydin C, Oztan O, Isgor C. Hippocampal Y2 receptor-mediated mossy fiber plasticity is implicated in nicotine abstinence-related social anxiety-like behavior in an outbred rat model of the novelty-seeking phenotype. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2014; 125:48-54. [PMID: 25158103 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2014.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2014] [Revised: 08/12/2014] [Accepted: 08/17/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Experimentally naïve outbred rats display varying rates of locomotor reactivity in response to the mild stress of a novel environment. Namely, some display high rates (HR) whereas some display low rates (LR) of locomotor reactivity. Previous reports from our laboratory show that HRs, but not LRs, develop locomotor sensitization to a low dose nicotine challenge and exhibit increased social anxiety-like behavior following chronic intermittent nicotine training. Moreover, the hippocampus, specifically hippocampal Y2 receptor (Y2R)-mediated neuropeptide Y signaling is implicated in these nicotine-induced behavioral effects observed in HRs. The present study examines the structural substrates of the expression of locomotor sensitization to a low dose nicotine challenge and associated social anxiety-like behavior following chronic intermittent nicotine exposure during adolescence in the LRHR hippocampi. Our data showed that the expression of locomotor sensitization to the low dose nicotine challenge and the increase in social anxiety-like behavior were accompanied by an increase in mossy fiber terminal field size, as well as an increase in spinophilin mRNA levels in the hippocampus in nicotine pre-trained HRs compared to saline pre-trained controls. Furthermore, a novel, selective Y2R antagonist administered systemically during 1 wk of abstinence reversed the behavioral, molecular and neuromorphological effects observed in nicotine-exposed HRs. These results suggest that nicotine-induced neuroplasticity within the hippocampus may regulate abstinence-related negative affect in HRs, and implicate hippocampal Y2R in vulnerability to the behavioral and neuroplastic effects of nicotine in the novelty-seeking phenotype.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cigdem Aydin
- Charles E. Schmidt College of Medicine, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL 33431, United States.
| | - Ozge Oztan
- Charles E. Schmidt College of Medicine, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL 33431, United States
| | - Ceylan Isgor
- Charles E. Schmidt College of Medicine, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL 33431, United States
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Ledri M, Nikitidou L, Erdelyi F, Szabo G, Kirik D, Deisseroth K, Kokaia M. Altered profile of basket cell afferent synapses in hyper-excitable dentate gyrus revealed by optogenetic and two-pathway stimulations. Eur J Neurosci 2012; 36:1971-83. [PMID: 22512307 DOI: 10.1111/j.1460-9568.2012.08080.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Cholecystokinin (CCK-) positive basket cells form a distinct class of inhibitory GABAergic interneurons, proposed to act as fine-tuning devices of hippocampal gamma-frequency (30-90 Hz) oscillations, which can convert into higher frequency seizure activity. Therefore, CCK-basket cells may play an important role in regulation of hyper-excitability and seizures in the hippocampus. In normal conditions, the endogenous excitability regulator neuropeptide Y (NPY) has been shown to modulate afferent inputs onto dentate gyrus CCK-basket cells, providing a possible novel mechanism for excitability control in the hippocampus. Using GAD65-GFP mice for CCK-basket cell identification, and whole-cell patch-clamp recordings, we explored whether the effect of NPY on afferent synapses to CCK-basket cells is modified in the hyper-excitable dentate gyrus. To induce a hyper-excitable state, recurrent seizures were evoked by electrical stimulation of the hippocampus using the well-characterized rapid kindling protocol. The frequency of spontaneous and miniature excitatory and inhibitory post-synaptic currents recorded in CCK-basket cells was decreased by NPY. The excitatory post-synaptic currents evoked in CCK-basket cells by optogenetic activation of principal neurons were also decreased in amplitude. Interestingly, we observed an increased proportion of spontaneous inhibitory post-synaptic currents with slower rise times, indicating that NPY may inhibit gamma aminobutyric acid release preferentially in peri-somatic synapses. These findings indicate that increased levels and release of NPY observed after seizures can modulate afferent inputs to CCK-basket cells, and therefore alter their impact on the oscillatory network activity and excitability in the hippocampus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Ledri
- Experimental Epilepsy Group, Division of Neurology, Wallenberg Neuroscience Centre, Lund University Hospital, Lund, Sweden
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7
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Effects of a selective Y2R antagonist, JNJ-31020028, on nicotine abstinence-related social anxiety-like behavior, neuropeptide Y and corticotropin releasing factor mRNA levels in the novelty-seeking phenotype. Behav Brain Res 2011; 222:332-41. [PMID: 21497168 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2011.03.067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2010] [Revised: 03/25/2011] [Accepted: 03/30/2011] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
An outbred rat model of novelty-seeking phenotype has predictive value for the expression of locomotor sensitization to nicotine. When experimentally naïve rats are exposed to a novel environment, some display high rates of locomotor reactivity (HRs, scores ranking at top 1/3rd of the population), whereas some display low rates (LRs, scores ranking at bottom 1/3rd of the population). Basally, HRs display lower anxiety-like behavior compared to LRs along with higher neuropeptide Y (NPY) mRNA in the amygdala and the hippocampus. Following an intermittent behavioral sensitization to nicotine regimen and 1 wk of abstinence, HRs show increased social anxiety-like behavior in the social interaction test and robust expression of locomotor sensitization to a low dose nicotine challenge. These effects are accompanied by a deficit in NPY mRNA levels in the medial nucleus of the amygdala and the CA3 field of the hippocampus, and increases in Y2R mRNA levels in the CA3 field and corticotropin releasing factor (CRF) mRNA levels in the central nucleus of the amygdala. Systemic and daily injections of a Y2R antagonist, JNJ-31020028, during abstinence fully reverse nicotine-induced social anxiety-like behavior, the expression of locomotor sensitization to nicotine challenge, the deficit in the NPY mRNA levels in the amygdala and the hippocampus, as well as result an increase in Y2R mRNA levels in the hippocampus and the CRF mRNA levels in the amygdala in HRs. These findings implicate central Y2R in neuropeptidergic regulation of social anxiety in a behavioral sensitization to nicotine regimen in the LRHR rats.
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8
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Ledri M, Sørensen AT, Erdelyi F, Szabo G, Kokaia M. Tuning afferent synapses of hippocampal interneurons by neuropeptide Y. Hippocampus 2011; 21:198-211. [DOI: 10.1002/hipo.20740] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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Epileptic tolerance is associated with enduring neuroprotection and uncoupling of the relationship between CA3 damage, neuropeptide Y rearrangement and spontaneous seizures following intra-amygdala kainic acid-induced status epilepticus in mice. Neuroscience 2010; 171:556-65. [PMID: 20837105 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2010.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2010] [Revised: 08/30/2010] [Accepted: 09/03/2010] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Brief, non-harmful seizures can activate endogenous protective programmes which render the brain resistant to damage caused by prolonged seizure episodes. Whether protection in epileptic tolerance is long-lasting or influences the subsequent development of epilepsy is uncertain. Presently, we investigated the relationship between hippocampal pathology, neuropeptide Y rearrangement and spontaneous seizures in sham- and seizure-preconditioned mice after status epilepticus induced by intra-amygdala kainate. Seizure-induced neuronal death at 24 h was significantly reduced in the ipsilateral hippocampal CA3 and hilus of tolerance mice compared to sham-preconditioned animals subject to status epilepticus. Damage to the CA3-hilus remained reduced in tolerance mice 21 days post-status. In sham-preconditioned mice subject to status epilepticus correlative statistics showed there was a strong inverse relationship between CA3, but not hilar, neuron counts and the number of spontaneous seizures. A strong positive association was also found between neuropeptide Y score and spontaneous seizure count in these mice. In contrast, there was no significant association between spontaneous seizure count and CA3 neuron loss or neuropeptide Y rearrangement in the tolerance mice. These data show that tolerance-conferred neuroprotection is long-lasting and that tolerance disrupts the normal association between CA3 damage, synaptic rearrangement and occurrence of spontaneous seizures in this model.
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Kondo A, Shingo T, Yasuhara T, Kuramoto S, Kameda M, Kikuchi Y, Matsui T, Miyoshi Y, Agari T, Borlongan CV, Date I. Erythropoietin exerts anti-epileptic effects with the suppression of aberrant new cell formation in the dentate gyrus and upregulation of neuropeptide Y in seizure model of rats. Brain Res 2009; 1296:127-36. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2009.08.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2009] [Revised: 08/02/2009] [Accepted: 08/05/2009] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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Palop JJ, Chin J, Roberson ED, Wang J, Thwin MT, Bien-Ly N, Yoo J, Ho KO, Yu GQ, Kreitzer A, Finkbeiner S, Noebels JL, Mucke L. Aberrant excitatory neuronal activity and compensatory remodeling of inhibitory hippocampal circuits in mouse models of Alzheimer's disease. Neuron 2007; 55:697-711. [PMID: 17785178 PMCID: PMC8055171 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2007.07.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1171] [Impact Index Per Article: 68.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2006] [Revised: 05/11/2007] [Accepted: 07/18/2007] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Neural network dysfunction may play an important role in Alzheimer's disease (AD). Neuronal circuits vulnerable to AD are also affected in human amyloid precursor protein (hAPP) transgenic mice. hAPP mice with high levels of amyloid-beta peptides in the brain develop AD-like abnormalities, including cognitive deficits and depletions of calcium-related proteins in the dentate gyrus, a region critically involved in learning and memory. Here, we report that hAPP mice have spontaneous nonconvulsive seizure activity in cortical and hippocampal networks, which is associated with GABAergic sprouting, enhanced synaptic inhibition, and synaptic plasticity deficits in the dentate gyrus. Many Abeta-induced neuronal alterations could be simulated in nontransgenic mice by excitotoxin challenge and prevented in hAPP mice by blocking overexcitation. Aberrant increases in network excitability and compensatory inhibitory mechanisms in the hippocampus may contribute to Abeta-induced neurological deficits in hAPP mice and, possibly, also in humans with AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jorge J. Palop
- Gladstone Institute of Neurological Disease, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
- Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
- Correspondence: or
| | - Jeannie Chin
- Gladstone Institute of Neurological Disease, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
- Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
| | - Erik D. Roberson
- Gladstone Institute of Neurological Disease, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
- Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
| | - Jun Wang
- Gladstone Institute of Neurological Disease, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
| | - Myo T. Thwin
- Gladstone Institute of Neurological Disease, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
| | - Nga Bien-Ly
- Gladstone Institute of Neurological Disease, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
| | - Jong Yoo
- Developmental Neurogenetics Laboratory, Department of Neurology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Kaitlyn O. Ho
- Gladstone Institute of Neurological Disease, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
| | - Gui-Qiu Yu
- Gladstone Institute of Neurological Disease, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
| | - Anatol Kreitzer
- Gladstone Institute of Neurological Disease, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
- Department of Physiology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
| | - Steven Finkbeiner
- Gladstone Institute of Neurological Disease, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
- Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
- Department of Physiology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
| | - Jeffrey L. Noebels
- Developmental Neurogenetics Laboratory, Department of Neurology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Lennart Mucke
- Gladstone Institute of Neurological Disease, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
- Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
- Correspondence: or
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