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Bobbert MF, Koopman AS. Humans need only 200 ms to generate posture-specific muscle activation patterns for successful vertical jumps in reaction to an auditory trigger. Front Sports Act Living 2023; 5:1123335. [PMID: 37265493 PMCID: PMC10229792 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2023.1123335] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2022] [Accepted: 03/27/2023] [Indexed: 06/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction It is currently unknown how the central nervous system controls ballistic whole-body movements like vertical jumps. Here we set out to study the time frame of generating muscle activation patterns for maximum-effort jumps from different initial postures. Methods We had ten healthy male participants make a slow countermovement from an upright position and initiate a maximal vertical jump as soon as possible following an auditory trigger. The trigger was produced when hip height dropped below one of three preselected values, unknown in advance to the participant, so that the participant was uncertain about the posture from which to initiate the jump. Furthermore, we determined the ensuing bottom postures reached during jumps, and from these postures had the participants perform maximum-effort squat jumps in two conditions: whenever they felt ready, or as soon as possible following an auditory trigger. Kinematics and ground reaction forces were measured, and electromyograms were collected from gluteus maximus, biceps femoris, rectus femoris, vastus lateralis, gastrocnemius and soleus. For each muscle, we detected activation onsets, as well as reaction times defined as the delay between trigger onset and activation onset. Results In the jumps preceded by a slow countermovement, the posture from which to initiate the jump was unknown before trigger onset. Nevertheless, in these jumps, posture-specific muscle activation patterns were already released within 200 ms after trigger onset and reaction times were not longer and jump heights not less than in squat jumps from corresponding bottom postures. Discussion Our findings suggest that the generation of muscle activation patterns for jumping does not start before trigger onset and requires only about 200 ms.
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van der Veen S, Caviness JN, Dreissen YE, Ganos C, Ibrahim A, Koelman JH, Stefani A, Tijssen MA. Myoclonus and other jerky movement disorders. Clin Neurophysiol Pract 2022; 7:285-316. [PMID: 36324989 PMCID: PMC9619152 DOI: 10.1016/j.cnp.2022.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2022] [Revised: 08/29/2022] [Accepted: 09/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Myoclonus and other jerky movements form a large heterogeneous group of disorders. Clinical neurophysiology studies can have an important contribution to support diagnosis but also to gain insight in the pathophysiology of different kind of jerks. This review focuses on myoclonus, tics, startle disorders, restless legs syndrome, and periodic leg movements during sleep. Myoclonus is defined as brief, shock-like movements, and subtypes can be classified based the anatomical origin. Both the clinical phenotype and the neurophysiological tests support this classification: cortical, cortical-subcortical, subcortical/non-segmental, segmental, peripheral, and functional jerks. The most important techniques used are polymyography and the combination of electromyography-electroencephalography focused on jerk-locked back-averaging, cortico-muscular coherence, and the Bereitschaftspotential. Clinically, the differential diagnosis of myoclonus includes tics, and this diagnosis is mainly based on the history with premonitory urges and the ability to suppress the tic. Electrophysiological tests are mainly applied in a research setting and include the Bereitschaftspotential, local field potentials, transcranial magnetic stimulation, and pre-pulse inhibition. Jerks due to a startling stimulus form the group of startle syndromes. This group includes disorders with an exaggerated startle reflex, such as hyperekplexia and stiff person syndrome, but also neuropsychiatric and stimulus-induced disorders. For these disorders polymyography combined with a startling stimulus can be useful to determine the pattern of muscle activation and thus the diagnosis. Assessment of symptoms in restless legs syndrome and periodic leg movements during sleep can be performed with different validated scoring criteria with the help of electromyography.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sterre van der Veen
- Department of Neurology, University of Groningen, University Medical Centre Groningen (UMCG), Groningen, The Netherlands,Expertise Centre Movement Disorders Groningen, University Medical Centre Groningen (UMCG), Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - John N. Caviness
- Department of Neurology, Mayo Clinic Arizona, Movement Neurophysiology Laboratory, Scottsdale, AZ, USA
| | - Yasmine E.M. Dreissen
- Department of Neurosurgery, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Christos Ganos
- Movement Disorders and Neuromodulation Unit, Department of Neurology, Charité University Medicine Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Abubaker Ibrahim
- Department of Neurology, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Johannes H.T.M. Koelman
- Department of Neurology and Clinical Neurophysiology, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Ambra Stefani
- Department of Neurology, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Marina A.J. Tijssen
- Department of Neurology, University of Groningen, University Medical Centre Groningen (UMCG), Groningen, The Netherlands,Expertise Centre Movement Disorders Groningen, University Medical Centre Groningen (UMCG), Groningen, The Netherlands,Corresponding author at: Department of Neurology, University of Groningen, University Medical Centre Groningen (UMCG), PO Box 30.001, 9700 RB Groningen, The Netherlands.
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Gowen CL, Khwaounjoo P, Cakmak YO. EMG-Free Monitorization of the Acoustic Startle Reflex with a Mobile Phone: Implications of Sound Parameters with Posture Related Responses. SENSORS 2020; 20:s20215996. [PMID: 33105890 PMCID: PMC7660167 DOI: 10.3390/s20215996] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2020] [Revised: 10/14/2020] [Accepted: 10/14/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
(1) Background: Acute acoustic (sound) stimulus prompts a state of defensive motivation in which unconscious muscle responses are markedly enhanced in humans. The orbicularis oculi (OO) of the eye is an easily accessed muscle common for acoustic startle reaction/response/reflex (ASR) investigations and is the muscle of interest in this study. Although the ASR can provide insights about numerous clinical conditions, existing methodologies (Electromyogram, EMG) limit the usability of the method in real clinical conditions. (2) Objective: With EMG-free muscle recording in mind, our primary aim was to identify and investigate potential correlations in the responses of individual and cooperative OO muscles to various acoustic stimuli using a mobile and wire-free system. Our secondary aim was to investigate potential altered responses to high and also relatively low intensity acoustics at different frequencies in both sitting and standing positions through the use of biaural sound induction and video diagnostic techniques and software. (3) Methods: This study used a mobile-phone acoustic startle response monitoring system application to collect blink amplitude and velocity data on healthy males, aged 18–28 community cohorts during (n = 30) in both sitting and standing postures. The iPhone X application delivers specific sound parameters and detects blinking responses to acoustic stimulus (in millisecond resolution) to study the responses of the blinking reflex to acoustic sounds in standing and sitting positions by using multiple acoustic test sets of different frequencies and amplitudes introduced as acute sound stimuli (<0.5 s). The single acoustic battery of 15 pure-square wave sounds consisted of frequencies and amplitudes between 500, 1000, 2000, 3000, and 4000 Hz scales using 65, 90, and 105 dB (e.g., 3000 Hz_90 dB). (4) Results: Results show that there was a synchronization of amplitude and velocity between both eyes to all acoustic startles. Significant differences (p = 0.01) in blinking reaction time between sitting vs. standing at the high intensity (105 dB) 500 Hz acoustic test set was discovered. Interestingly, a highly significant difference (p < 0.001) in response times between test sets 500 Hz_105 dB and 4000 Hz_105 dB was identified. (5) Conclusions: To our knowledge, this is the first mobile phone-based acoustic battery used to detect and report significant ASR responses to specific frequencies and amplitudes of sound stimulus with corresponding sitting and standing conditions. The results from this experiment indicate the potential significance of using the specific frequency, amplitude, and postural conditions (as never before identified) which can open new horizons for ASR to be used for diagnosis and monitoring in numerous clinical and remote or isolated conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher L. Gowen
- Department of Anatomy, School of Biomedical Sciences, University Of Otago, Po Box 56, Dunedin 9054, New Zealand; (C.L.G.); (P.K.)
| | - Prashanna Khwaounjoo
- Department of Anatomy, School of Biomedical Sciences, University Of Otago, Po Box 56, Dunedin 9054, New Zealand; (C.L.G.); (P.K.)
- Medtech Core, Auckland 1010, New Zealand
| | - Yusuf O. Cakmak
- Department of Anatomy, School of Biomedical Sciences, University Of Otago, Po Box 56, Dunedin 9054, New Zealand; (C.L.G.); (P.K.)
- Medtech Core, Auckland 1010, New Zealand
- Brain Health Research Centre, Dunedin 9054, New Zealand
- Centre for Health Systems and Technology, Dunedin 9054, New Zealand
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +64-03-479-4030
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Sanders O, Hsiao HY, Savin DN, Creath RA, Rogers MW. Aging changes in protective balance and startle responses to sudden drop perturbations. J Neurophysiol 2019; 122:39-50. [PMID: 31017835 PMCID: PMC6689787 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00431.2018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2018] [Revised: 04/05/2019] [Accepted: 04/17/2019] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
This study investigated aging changes in protective balance and startle responses to sudden drop perturbations and their effect on landing impact forces (vertical ground reaction forces, vGRF) and balance stability. Twelve healthy older (6 men; mean age = 72.5 ± 2.32 yr, mean ± SE) and 12 younger adults (7 men; mean age = 28.09 ± 1.03 yr) stood atop a moveable platform and received externally triggered drop perturbations of the support surface. Electromyographic activity was recorded bilaterally over the sternocleidomastoid (SCM), middle deltoid, biceps brachii, vastus lateralis (VL), biceps femoris (BF), medial gastrocnemius (MG), and tibialis anterior (TA). Whole body kinematics were recorded with motion analysis. Stability in the anteroposterior direction was quantified using the margin of stability (MoS). Incidence of early onset of bilateral SCM activation within 120 ms after drop onset was present during the first-trial response (FTR) for all participants. Co-contraction indexes during FTRs between VL and BF as well as TA and MG were significantly greater in the older group (VL/BF by 26%, P < 0.05; TA/MG by 37%, P < 0.05). Reduced shoulder abduction between FTR and last-trial responses, indicative of habituation, was present across both groups. Significant age-related differences in landing strategy were present between groups, because older adults had greater trunk flexion (P < 0.05) and less knee flexion (P < 0.05) that resulted in greater peak vGRFs and decreased MoS compared with younger adults. These findings suggest age-associated abnormalities of delayed, exaggerated, and poorly habituated startle/postural FTRs are linked with greater landing impact force and diminished balance stabilization. NEW & NOTEWORTHY This study investigated the role of startle as a pathophysiological mechanism contributing to balance impairment in aging. We measured neuromotor responses as younger and older adults stood on a platform that dropped unexpectedly. Group differences in landing strategies indicated age-associated abnormalities of delayed, exaggerated, and poorly habituated startle/postural responses linked with a higher magnitude of impact force and decreased balance stabilization. The findings have implications for determining mechanisms contributing to falls and related injuries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ozell Sanders
- Division of Rehabilitation Medicine, The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia , Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Hao Yuan Hsiao
- Department of Kinesiology and Health Education, University of Texas at Austin , Austin, Texas
| | - Douglas N Savin
- Department of Physical Therapy and Rehabilitation Science, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Robert A Creath
- Department of Physical Therapy and Rehabilitation Science, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Mark W Rogers
- Department of Physical Therapy and Rehabilitation Science, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
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Properties of short-latency responses in the upper limbs evoked by axial impulses during leaning: evidence for reticulospinal projections. Exp Brain Res 2018; 236:2611-2618. [DOI: 10.1007/s00221-018-5320-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2018] [Accepted: 06/25/2018] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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Postural responses in the upper limbs evoked by axial impulses: a role for reticulospinal projections. Exp Brain Res 2017; 235:2235-2242. [DOI: 10.1007/s00221-017-4963-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2017] [Accepted: 04/19/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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Nonnekes J, Carpenter MG, Inglis JT, Duysens J, Weerdesteyn V. What startles tell us about control of posture and gait. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2015; 53:131-8. [PMID: 25882206 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2015.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2014] [Revised: 03/12/2015] [Accepted: 04/03/2015] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Recently, there has been an increase in studies evaluating startle reflexes and StartReact, many in tasks involving postural control and gait. These studies have provided important new insights. First, several experiments indicate a superimposition of startle reflex activity on the postural response during unexpected balance perturbations. Overlap in the expression of startle reflexes and postural responses emphasizes the possibility of, at least partly, a common substrate for these two types of behavior. Second, it is recognized that the range of behaviors, susceptible to StartReact, has expanded considerably. Originally this work was concentrated on simple voluntary ballistic movements, but gait initiation, online step adjustments and postural responses can be initiated earlier by a startling stimulus as well, indicating advanced motor preparation of posture and gait. Third, recent experiments on StartReact using TMS and patients with corticospinal lesions suggest that this motor preparation involves a close interaction between cortical and subcortical structures. In this review, we provide a comprehensive overview on startle reflexes, StartReact, and their interaction with posture and gait.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jorik Nonnekes
- Radboud University Medical Center, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Department of Rehabilitation, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
| | - Mark G Carpenter
- School of Kinesiology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - J Timothy Inglis
- School of Kinesiology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Jacques Duysens
- Research Center for Movement Control and Neuroplasticity, Department of Kinesiology, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Vivian Weerdesteyn
- Radboud University Medical Center, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Department of Rehabilitation, Nijmegen, The Netherlands; Sint Maartenskliniek Research, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
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