The 'affect tagging and consolidation' (ATaC) model of depression vulnerability

The effects of shared, depression-specific, and anxiety-specific internalizing symptoms on negative and neutral episodic memories following post-learning sleep

Emotional memory bias is a common characteristic of internalizing symptomatology and is enhanced during sleep. The current study employs bifactor S-1 modeling to disentangle depression-specific anhedonia, anxiety-specific anxious arousal, and the common internalizing factor, general distress, and test whether these internalizing symptoms interact with sleep to influence memory for emotional and neutral information. Healthy adults (N = 281) encoded scenes featuring either negative objects (e.g., a vicious looking snake) or neutral objects (e.g., a chipmunk) placed on neutral backgrounds (e.g., an outdoor scene). After a 12-hour period of daytime wakefulness (n = 140) or nocturnal sleep (n = 141), participants judged whether objects and backgrounds were the same, similar, or new compared with what they viewed during encoding. Participants also completed the mini version of the Mood and Anxiety Symptom Questionnaire. Higher anxious arousal predicted worse memory across all stimuli features, but only after a day spent being awake-not following a night of sleep. No significant effects were found for general distress and anhedonia in either the sleep or wake condition. In this study, internalizing symptoms were not associated with enhanced emotional memory. Instead, memory performance specifically in individuals with higher anxious arousal was impaired overall, regardless of emotional valence, but this was only the case when the retention interval spanned wakefulness (i.e., not when it spanned sleep). This suggests that sleep may confer a protective effect on general memory impairments associated with anxiety.

Evidence of an active role of dreaming in emotional memory processing shows that we dream to forget

Dreaming is a universal human behavior that has inspired searches for meaning across many disciplines including art, psychology, religion, and politics, yet its function remains poorly understood. Given the suggested role of sleep in emotional memory processing, we investigated whether reported overnight dreaming and dream content are associated with sleep-dependent changes in emotional memory and reactivity, and whether dreaming plays an active or passive role. Participants completed an emotional picture task before and after a full night of sleep and they recorded the presence and content of their dreams upon waking in the morning. The results replicated the emotional memory trade-off (negative images maintained at the cost of neutral memories), but only in those who reported dreaming (Dream-Recallers), and not in Non-Dream-Recallers. Results also replicated sleep-dependent reductions in emotional reactivity, but only in Dream-Recallers, not in Non-Dream-Recallers. Additionally, the more positive the dream report, the more positive the next-day emotional reactivity is compared to the night before. These findings implicate an active role for dreaming in overnight emotional memory processing and suggest a mechanistic framework whereby dreaming may enhance salient emotional experiences via the forgetting of less relevant information.

How do the sleep features that characterise depression impact memory?

Depression is associated with general sleep disturbance and abnormalities in sleep physiology. For example, compared with control subjects, depressed patients exhibit lower sleep efficiency, longer rapid eye movement (REM) sleep duration, and diminished slow-wave activity during non-REM sleep. A separate literature indicates that depression is also associated with many distinguishing memory characteristics, including emotional memory bias, overgeneral autobiographical memory, and impaired memory suppression. The sleep and memory features that hallmark depression may both contribute to the onset and maintenance of the disorder. Despite our rapidly growing understanding of the intimate relationship between sleep and memory, our comprehension of how sleep and memory interact in the aetiology of depression remains poor. In this narrative review, we consider how the sleep signatures of depression could contribute to the accompanying memory characteristics.

Eye movement patterns correlate with overt emotional behaviours in rapid eye movement sleep

Growing evidence suggests that sleep plays a key role in regulating emotions. Rapid eye movements (REMs) in REM sleep could be associated with dreams emotions, but supporting evidence is indirect. To highlight this association, we studied the REM sleep during video-polysomnography of 20 subjects with REM sleep behaviour disorder (RBD), a model of enacted dreams offering direct access to the emotional content of the sleeper (face expression, speeches, behaviour). Video and the electro-oculography recordings were divided into 3 s time intervals and classified as non-behavioural, or behavioural (neutral, positive or negative emotions), and as containing no eye movements (EMs), slow eye movements (SEMs) or REMs (isolated or bursts). Compared to the absence of EMs, neutral behaviours successively increased in the presence of SEMs (odd ratio, OR = 1.4), then isolated REMs (OR = 2.8) and then REM bursts (OR = 4.6). Positive behaviours increased with SEMs (OR = 2.8) but did not increase further with isolated REMs (OR = 2.8) and REM bursts (OR = 3). Negative behaviours were absent with SEMs, increased with isolated REMs (OR = 2.6) and further with REM bursts (OR = 10.1). These results support an association between REMs and SEMs, and dream emotions.

Does Napping Enhance the Consolidation of Clinically Relevant Information? A Comparison of Individuals with Low and Elevated Depressive Symptoms

PURPOSE

Sleep, both overnight and daytime naps, can facilitate the consolidation of declarative memories in healthy humans. However, it is unclear whether such beneficial effects of sleep occur in special populations, such as individuals with elevated neuropsychiatric symptoms, and if they apply to clinically relevant material that may have personal significance to those populations.

METHODS

We examined memory retention over a 60-minute interval of wakefulness or nap opportunity in participants with low or elevated scores (≤13 and ≥21, respectively) on the Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II). Memory for depression-related information was assessed by (a) free-recall of a video depicting a personal experience narrative of the impact of depression on cognition and workplace performance; and (b) a paired-associates task linking depression-related cognitive symptoms to appropriate coping strategies.

RESULTS

The results showed no overall difference in recall between the nap and waking condition. However, across the full sample of participants, there were significant positive correlations between total sleep time and paired associates recall, and slow wave sleep (SWS) percentage and story free recall performance. Unexpectedly, participants with elevated BDI-II scores exhibited better free-recall performance compared to those with low scores.

CONCLUSION

These results suggest that sleep, specifically SWS, may stabilize memories for clinically relevant information in populations with low and elevated depressive symptoms. The superior recall in participants with elevated-BDI scores may be related to the personal significance and stronger encoding of depression-related information. These observations raise the possibility that mnemonic deficits in depressed patients may be, at least in part, related to the type of information used to assess memory performance.

NEVER forget: negative emotional valence enhances recapitulation

A hallmark feature of episodic memory is that of "mental time travel," whereby an individual feels they have returned to a prior moment in time. Cognitive and behavioral neuroscience methods have revealed a neurobiological counterpart: Successful retrieval often is associated with reactivation of a prior brain state. We review the emerging literature on memory reactivation and recapitulation, and we describe evidence for the effects of emotion on these processes. Based on this review, we propose a new model: Negative Emotional Valence Enhances Recapitulation (NEVER). This model diverges from existing models of emotional memory in three key ways. First, it underscores the effects of emotion during retrieval. Second, it stresses the importance of sensory processing to emotional memory. Third, it emphasizes how emotional valence - whether an event is negative or positive - affects the way that information is remembered. The model specifically proposes that, as compared to positive events, negative events both trigger increased encoding of sensory detail and elicit a closer resemblance between the sensory encoding signature and the sensory retrieval signature. The model also proposes that negative valence enhances the reactivation and storage of sensory details over offline periods, leading to a greater divergence between the sensory recapitulation of negative and positive memories over time. Importantly, the model proposes that these valence-based differences occur even when events are equated for arousal, thus rendering an exclusively arousal-based theory of emotional memory insufficient. We conclude by discussing implications of the model and suggesting directions for future research to test the tenets of the model.